Encoding state change of nanopore to reduce data size

ABSTRACT

A system includes a circuit configured to detect a voltage corresponding to an electrical measurement of a nanopore. The system also includes a component configured to compare the voltage to another voltage. Based at least in part on the comparison, a one bit indicator is determined. The one bit indicator indicates whether the voltage indicates a change in a state of the nanopore. In the event it is determined that the voltage indicates the change in the state of the nanopore, a multiple bit signal is provided for output.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Advances in micro-miniaturization within the semiconductor industry inrecent years have enabled biotechnologists to begin packingtraditionally bulky sensing tools into smaller and smaller form factors,onto so-called biochips. Often the amount of data that can be exportedout of the biochip is constrained due to limitations in communicationbandwidth. As more and more information is generated by the biochip, itwould be desirable to reduce the amount of data needed to be exportedout of the biochip.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various embodiments of the invention are disclosed in the followingdetailed description and the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a cell 100 in a nanopore-basedsequencing chip.

FIG. 2 illustrates an embodiment of a cell 200 performing nucleotidesequencing with the Nano-SBS technique.

FIG. 3 illustrates an embodiment of a cell about to perform nucleotidesequencing with pre-loaded tags.

FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of a process 400 for nucleic acidsequencing with pre-loaded tags.

FIG. 5A illustrates an embodiment of a small signal circuit model duringfaradaic conduction.

FIG. 5B illustrates the different states of the PNTMC with faradaicconduction.

FIG. 6 illustrates an embodiment of a cell in a nanopore-basedsequencing chip configured for non-faradaic and capacitively coupledmeasurements.

FIG. 7 illustrates an embodiment of a small signal circuit model fornon-faradaic conduction.

FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B illustrate an embodiment of the capacitive responseof the double layer.

FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate the nanopore current with non-faradaic ACmodulation.

FIG. 10 illustrates that the peak positive current at steady statevaries as a function of duty cycle and applied voltage.

FIG. 11 illustrates an embodiment of a simulation model that was matchedto the data of FIG. 10.

FIGS. 12A and 12B illustrate the simulation result when the appliedsignal has a 50% duty cycle.

FIG. 13A illustrates the measurement current when the applied signal hasa 25% duty cycle.

FIG. 13B illustrates the simulated current when the applied signal has a25% duty cycle.

FIG. 14A illustrates the voltage applied to the nanopore versus timewhen the applied signal has a 50% duty cycle.

FIG. 14B illustrates the voltage applied to the nanopore versus timewhen the applied signal has a 25% duty cycle.

FIG. 15 illustrates an embodiment of a process for identifying amolecule.

FIG. 16 illustrates an embodiment of a circuitry 1600 in a cell of ananopore-based sequencing chip.

FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment of a circuitry 1700 in a cell of ananopore-based sequencing chip, wherein the voltage applied across thenanopore can be configured to vary over a time period during which thenanopore is in a particular detectable state.

FIGS. 18A and 18B illustrate additional embodiments of a circuitry (1800and 1801) in a cell of a nanopore-based sequencing chip, wherein thevoltage applied across the nanopore can be configured to vary over atime period during which the nanopore is in a particular detectablestate.

FIG. 19 illustrates an embodiment of a process 1900 for analyzing amolecule inside a nanopore, wherein the nanopore is inserted in amembrane.

FIG. 20 illustrates an embodiment of a plot of the voltage appliedacross the nanopore versus time when process 1900 is performed andrepeated three times.

FIG. 21 illustrates an embodiment of the plots of the voltage appliedacross the nanopore versus time when the nanopore is in differentstates.

FIG. 22 is a circuit diagram illustrating an embodiment of a circuitryof a cell of a nanopore-based sequencing chip, wherein the sequencingchip includes an analog memory for storing measurement values.

FIG. 23 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process formeasuring a nanopore.

FIG. 24 is a diagram illustrating a graph of circuit measurements whenan AC voltage source is utilized as a reference voltage of a counterelectrode of a nanopore.

FIG. 25 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system fordetecting a state of a nanopore and adaptively processing nanopore statedata to optimize data to be outputted.

FIG. 26 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process forreporting nanopore state data.

FIG. 27 is a diagram illustrating an example of periodic electricalmeasurement samples received during a cycle of a reference AC voltagesource signal.

FIG. 28 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process foradaptively analyzing data to be outputted.

FIG. 29 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process fordetermining a compression technique.

FIG. 30 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process formodifying/filtering data to be outputted.

FIG. 31 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process forhandling a threaded nanopore multi-state detection.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as aprocess; an apparatus; a system; a composition of matter; a computerprogram product embodied on a computer readable storage medium; and/or aprocessor, such as a processor configured to execute instructions storedon and/or provided by a memory coupled to the processor. In thisspecification, these implementations, or any other form that theinvention may take, may be referred to as techniques. In general, theorder of the steps of disclosed processes may be altered within thescope of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, a component such as aprocessor or a memory described as being configured to perform a taskmay be implemented as a general component that is temporarily configuredto perform the task at a given time or a specific component that ismanufactured to perform the task. As used herein, the term ‘processor’refers to one or more devices, circuits, and/or processing coresconfigured to process data, such as computer program instructions.

A detailed description of one or more embodiments of the invention isprovided below along with accompanying figures that illustrate theprinciples of the invention. The invention is described in connectionwith such embodiments, but the invention is not limited to anyembodiment. The scope of the invention is limited only by the claims andthe invention encompasses numerous alternatives, modifications andequivalents. Numerous specific details are set forth in the followingdescription in order to provide a thorough understanding of theinvention. These details are provided for the purpose of example and theinvention may be practiced according to the claims without some or allof these specific details. For the purpose of clarity, technicalmaterial that is known in the technical fields related to the inventionhas not been described in detail so that the invention is notunnecessarily obscured.

Nanopore membrane devices having pore sizes on the order of onenanometer in internal diameter have shown promise in rapid nucleotidesequencing. When a voltage potential is applied across a nanoporeimmersed in a conducting fluid, a small ion current attributed to theconduction of ions across the nanopore can be observed. The size of thecurrent is sensitive to the pore size.

A nanopore-based sequencing chip may be used for DNA sequencing. Ananopore-based sequencing chip incorporates a large number of sensorcells configured as an array. For example, an array of one million cellsmay include 1000 rows by 1000 columns of cells.

FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a cell 100 in a nanopore-basedsequencing chip. A membrane 102 is formed over the surface of the cell.In some embodiments, membrane 102 is a lipid bilayer. The bulkelectrolyte 114 containing soluble protein nanopore transmembranemolecular complexes (PNTMC) and the analyte of interest is placeddirectly onto the surface of the cell. A single PNTMC 104 is insertedinto membrane 102 by electroporation. The individual membranes in thearray are neither chemically nor electrically connected to each other.Thus, each cell in the array is an independent sequencing machine,producing data unique to the single polymer molecule associated with thePNTMC. PNTMC 104 operates on the analytes and modulates the ioniccurrent through the otherwise impermeable bilayer.

With continued reference to FIG. 1, analog measurement circuitry 112 isconnected to a metal electrode 110 covered by a thin film of electrolyte108. The thin film of electrolyte 108 is isolated from the bulkelectrolyte 114 by the ion-impermeable membrane 102. PNTMC 104 crossesmembrane 102 and provides the only path for ionic current to flow fromthe bulk liquid to working electrode 110. The cell also includes acounter electrode (CE) 116, which is an electrochemical potentialsensor.

In some embodiments, a nanopore array enables parallel sequencing usingthe single molecule nanopore-based sequencing by synthesis (Nano-SBS)technique. FIG. 2 illustrates an embodiment of a cell 200 performingnucleotide sequencing with the Nano-SBS technique. In the Nano-SBStechnique, a template 202 to be sequenced and a primer are introduced tocell 200. To this template-primer complex, four differently taggednucleotides 208 are added to the bulk aqueous phase. As the correctlytagged nucleotide is complexed with the polymerase 204, the tail of thetag is positioned in the barrel of nanopore 206. The tag held in thebarrel of nanopore 206 generates a unique ionic blockade signal 210,thereby electronically identifying the added base due to the tags'distinct chemical structures.

FIG. 3 illustrates an embodiment of a cell about to perform nucleotidesequencing with pre-loaded tags. A nanopore 301 is formed in a membrane302. An enzyme 303 (e.g., a polymerase, such as a DNA polymerase) isassociated with the nanopore. In some cases, polymerase 303 iscovalently attached to nanopore 301. Polymerase 303 is associated with anucleic acid molecule 304 to be sequenced. In some embodiments, thenucleic acid molecule 304 is circular. In some cases, nucleic acidmolecule 304 is linear. In some embodiments, a nucleic acid primer 305is hybridized to a portion of nucleic acid molecule 304. Polymerase 303catalyzes the incorporation of nucleotides 306 onto primer 305 usingsingle stranded nucleic acid molecule 304 as a template. Nucleotides 306comprise tag species (“tags”) 307.

FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of a process 400 for nucleic acidsequencing with pre-loaded tags. Stage A illustrates the components asdescribed in FIG. 3. Stage C shows the tag loaded into the nanopore. A“loaded” tag may be one that is positioned in and/or remains in or nearthe nanopore for an appreciable amount of time, e.g., 0.1 millisecond(ms) to 10000 ms. In some cases, a tag that is pre-loaded is loaded inthe nanopore prior to being released from the nucleotide. In someinstances, a tag is pre-loaded if the probability of the tag passingthrough (and/or being detected by) the nanopore after being releasedupon a nucleotide incorporation event is suitably high, e.g., 90% to99%.

At stage A, a tagged nucleotide (one of four different types: A, T, G,or C) is not associated with the polymerase. At stage B, a taggednucleotide is associated with the polymerase. At stage C, the polymeraseis docked to the nanopore. The tag is pulled into the nanopore duringdocking by an electrical force, such as a force generated in thepresence of an electric field generated by a voltage applied across themembrane and/or the nanopore.

Some of the associated tagged nucleotides are not base paired with thenucleic acid molecule. These non-paired nucleotides typically arerejected by the polymerase within a time scale that is shorter than thetime scale for which correctly paired nucleotides remain associated withthe polymerase. Since the non-paired nucleotides are only transientlyassociated with the polymerase, process 400 as shown in FIG. 4 typicallydoes not proceed beyond stage D. For example, a non-paired nucleotide isrejected by the polymerase at stage B or shortly after the processenters stage C.

Before the polymerase is docked to the nanopore, the conductance of thenanopore is ˜300 pico Siemens (300 pS). At stage C, the conductance ofthe nanopore is about 60 pS, 80 pS, 100 pS, or 120 pS corresponding toone of the four types of tagged nucleotides. The polymerase undergoes anisomerization and a transphosphorylation reaction to incorporate thenucleotide into the growing nucleic acid molecule and release the tagmolecule. In particular, as the tag is held in the nanopore, a uniqueconductance signal (e.g., see signal 210 in FIG. 2) is generated due tothe tag's distinct chemical structures, thereby identifying the addedbase electronically. Repeating the cycle (i.e., stage A through E orstage A through F) allows for the sequencing of the nucleic acidmolecule. At stage D, the released tag passes through the nanopore.

In some cases, tagged nucleotides that are not incorporated into thegrowing nucleic acid molecule will also pass through the nanopore, asseen in stage F of FIG. 4. The unincorporated nucleotide can be detectedby the nanopore in some instances, but the method provides a means fordistinguishing between an incorporated nucleotide and an unincorporatednucleotide based at least in part on the time for which the nucleotideis detected in the nanopore. Tags bound to unincorporated nucleotidespass through the nanopore quickly and are detected for a short period oftime (e.g., less than 10 ms), while tags bound to incorporatednucleotides are loaded into the nanopore and detected for a long periodof time (e.g., at least 10 ms).

Two types of ionic flow can be driven through the PNTMC—faradaicconduction and non-faradaic conduction. In faradaic conduction, achemical reaction occurs at the surface of the metal electrode. Thefaradaic current is the current generated by the reduction or oxidationof some chemical substances at an electrode. In non-faradaic conduction,no chemical reaction happens at the surface of the metal. The changingpotential on the double layer capacitance between the metal electrodeand the thin film of electrolyte drives the ion flow.

Ionic flow by faradaic conduction has a number of drawbacks. Theoperational lifespan of an electrode is limited because the metal in theelectrode is consumed and depleted as the ionic current flows throughthe PNTMC, as will be described in greater detail below.

FIG. 5A illustrates an embodiment of a small signal circuit model duringfaradaic conduction. The PNTMC and WE are represented as simpleresistors in the small signal circuit model. FIG. 5B illustrates thedifferent states of the PNTMC with faradaic conduction. The ioniccurrent flow, i(t), has five states: the highest current state with anopen nanopore channel (not shown) and four lower current statescorresponding to each of four different types of nucleotides bound tothe active site of the PNTMC. Positive current flow i(t) describeselectrons entering the V_(CE, RE) node and leaving the V_(WE) node.Anions (e.g., Cl⁻) leave the CE, flow through the bulk electrolyte,cross the lipid bilayer via the PNTMC, and continue through the thinfilm of electrolyte and combine with the metal of the WE.

For example, for an electrode with silver metal (Ag), the chemicalreaction is:Ag_((solid))+Cl_((aqueous))⁻→AgCl_((solid))+electron_((flows in analog circuit))  Equation 1

As shown in Equation 1 above, an atom of metallic silver is converted toan insoluble salt, silver-chloride (AgCl), for each chloride anion (Cl⁻)that passes through the PNTMC. In some cases, the silver is depletedwithin minutes of operation.

To avoid depletion of the metal electrode, the direction of the ioniccurrent flow may be reversed by applying a negative voltage for asimilar duration, causing the silver-chloride (AgCl) to be convertedback to silver metal. However, recharging or refreshing in this mannercauses the silver to be re-deposited as hair-like features on thesurface of the metal electrode, which may impact overall performance,especially in chips with smaller cell geometry and thus smallerelectrodes.

Another way is to delay the depletion of the metal electrode by applyinga voltage to draw the polymerase to the nanopore and pull the tagthrough or to the proximity of the nanopore for detection, and then turnoff the voltage for a period of time, which will cause the tag to bereleased from the nanopore. Since there is no current while the voltageis turned off, fewer silver atoms are converted and the lifespan of themetal electrode is prolonged. However, the detection time is reducedaccordingly.

In addition to depletion of the metal electrode, faradaic conductionalso causes an imbalance in the concentration of the bulk electrolytewithin the cells over time. For example, there is a net gain of KClmolecules at one electrode but a net loss of KCl molecules at theopposite electrode. This salt concentration buildup at one electrode andsalt depletion on the opposite electrode creates undesirable osmoticpressure within the cell.

An alternative type of ionic flow through the PNTMC is via non-faradaicconduction. In non-faradaic conduction, no chemical reaction (reductionor oxidation of chemical substances) occurs at the surface of the metal.The changing potential across the double layer capacitance between themetal electrode and the thin film of electrolyte drives the ion flow.

For non-faradaic conduction, the metal electrode may be made of metalsthat are resistant to corrosion and oxidation. For example, noble metalssuch as platinum or gold oxidize with difficulty, and even when they dooxidize, the process is easily reversible. When small potentials (e.g.,less than +/−1 V relative to V_(CE)) are applied to platinum/gold in anelectrolyte, aside from an initial capacitive transient, no ioniccurrent flows. This allows the measurement of electron tunneling fromthe metal into redox (reduction-oxidation) active species mixed into theelectrolyte. Without redox active species (such as Ferricyanide orFerrocyanide) in the electrolyte, no steady state ionic (or electron orhole) current flows across the metal-liquid interface. Despite the lackof chemical (i.e., bonding) interaction between the platinum/gold andthe electrolyte, there is transient physical displacement of ions in theelectrolyte from the growth and shrinkage of the ion depletion region atthe metal-liquid interface, in response to the applied potential. Thision depletion region is referred to as a “double layer” inelectrochemistry parlance. Using an electrical engineering model, aparallel plate capacitor forms where the metal is one plate, thedepletion region is the dielectric, and the diffuse distribution of ionsin the liquid is the other plate.

FIG. 6 illustrates an embodiment of a cell in a nanopore-basedsequencing chip configured for non-faradaic and capacitively coupledmeasurements. A lipid bilayer 602 is formed over the surface of thecell. The electrolyte containing soluble protein nanopore transmembranemolecular complexes (PNTMC) and analyte of interest 614 is placeddirectly onto the surface of the cell. A single PNTMC 604 is insertedinto lipid bilayer 602 by electroporation. The individual lipid bilayersin the array are not connected to each other either chemically orelectrically. Thus, each cell in the array is an independent sequencingmachine producing data unique to the single polymer molecule associatedwith the PNTMC. The cell includes an analog measurement circuit 612 formaking non-faradaic and capacitively coupled measurements. Themeasurements are converted to digital information and transmitted out ofthe cell. In some embodiments, the transmission data rate is on theorder of gigabits per second. In some embodiments, a field programmablegate array (FPGA) or an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)receives the transmitted data, processes the data, and forwards the datato a computer.

With continued reference to FIG. 6, analog measurement circuitry 612 isconnected to a metal electrode 610 covered by a thin film of electrolyte608. The thin film of electrolyte 608 is isolated from the bulkelectrolyte 614 by the ion-impermeable lipid bilayer 602. PNTMC 604crosses lipid bilayer 602 and provides the only path for ionic flow fromthe bulk liquid to metal electrode 610. Metal electrode 610 is alsoreferred to as the working electrode (WE). For non-faradaic conduction,metal electrode 610 may be made of metals that are resistant tocorrosion and oxidation, e.g., platinum, gold, and graphite. Metalelectrode 610 may be a spongy electrode, as will be described in greaterdetail below. The cell also includes a counter/reference electrode(CE/RE) 616, which is an electrochemical potential sensor.

FIG. 7 illustrates an embodiment of a small signal circuit model fornon-faradaic conduction. The PNTMC is represented as a simple resistor702 in the small signal circuit model. The double layer capacitance isrepresented as a capacitor 704 in the small signal circuit model. Insome embodiments, V₁ in FIG. 7 is set to be an incremental voltage fromground, e.g., 500 mV, while V₂ is set to be V₁ plus an applied signal,e.g., an applied AC signal from 10 Hz to 1 kHz.

In some embodiments, the applied signal is an AC signal. At onepolarity, the applied AC signal draws the polymerase to the nanopore anddraws the tag through or to the proximity of the nanopore for detection.When the polarity of the applied AC signal is reversed, the tag isreleased from the nanopore, and the electrode is recharged/refreshedsuch that no electrochemical changes are made to the metal electrodes.As the AC signal repeatedly changes polarity, a portion of a tagassociated with a tagged nucleotide is directed into a nanopore anddirected out of the nanopore for a plurality of times. This repetitiveloading and expulsion of a single tag allows the tag to be read multipletimes. Multiple reads may enable correction for errors, such as errorsassociated with tags threading into and/or out of a nanopore.

In some embodiments, the frequency of the AC signal is chosen at leastin part based on the time period during which a tagged nucleotide isassociated with a polymerase. The frequency of the AC signal shouldallow a tagged nucleotide associated with the polymerase to be drawn andloaded into the nanopore for a sufficient length of time at least oncesuch that the tag can be detected; otherwise, some of the tags that areassociated with the polymerase cannot be detected by the system. Inother words, the sampling should be at a rate faster than the rate atwhich the sequence of events is occurring, such that no events aremissed.

With continued reference to FIG. 6, before the lipid bilayer 602 hasbeen formed, the bulk electrolyte 614 is in direct contact with theworking electrode 610, thus creating a short circuit between theelectrolyte and the working electrode. FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B illustrate anembodiment of the capacitive response of the double layer. The figuresillustrate the properties of the double layer with a short circuitbetween the electrolyte and the working electrode. In this example, theelectrolyte contains 0.5 M Potassium Acetate and 10 mM KCl. The counterelectrode 616 includes AgCl. The working electrode 610 is a platinumelectrode with electroplated platinum. Water viscosity prevents the easyflow of ions in response to the applied field; this is manifested as aseries resistance in the double layer capacitive response. Thisresistance limits the peak current as shown in FIG. 8A. The seriesnature of the RC electrochemical connection can be seen in the decay ofthe response, which is characterized by the RC time constant. In FIG.8B, the current is shown to fall to exp (−25)=13.8 pA, below thedetection limit of the system. This demonstrates a lack of both shuntresistance (from an electrical point of view) and faradaic current (froman electrochemical point of view).

The working electrode 610 is configured to maximize its surface area fora given volume. As the surface area increases, the capacitance of thedouble layer increases, and a greater amount of ions can be displacedwith the same applied potential before the capacitor becomes charged.Referring to FIG. 7, the impedance of

${C_{{Double}\mspace{14mu}{Layer}} = \frac{1}{\left( {j*2*{pi}*f*C} \right)}},$where f=frequency and C=C_(Double Layer) By making f, C, or both f and Clarger, the capacitor's impedance becomes very small relative toR_(PNTMC), and the current to be measured becomes larger. As theimpedance of the small signal model is dominated by R_(PNTMC), themeasured current can better differentiate the five states: the highestcurrent state with an open nanopore channel and four lower currentstates corresponding to each of four different types of nucleotidesbound into the active site of the PNTMC.

For example, the surface area of the working electrode may be increasedby making the electrode “spongy.” In some embodiments, the capacitanceof the double layer to the bulk liquid can be enhanced by electroplatingplatinum metal onto a 5 micron diameter smooth platinum electrode in thepresence of a detergent. The detergent creates nanoscale interstitialspaces in the platinum metal, making it “spongy.” The platinum spongesoaks up electrolyte and creates a large effective surface area (e.g.,33 pF per square micron of electrode top-down area). Maximizing thedouble layer surface area creates a “DC block” capacitor, whereby thevoltage on the double layer reaches steady state and barely changesduring operation. The series PNTMC resistance (R_(PNTMC) in FIG. 7) andthe double layer capacitance (C_(Double Layer) in FIG. 7) form a lowfrequency zero, which acts as a high pass filter. In one example,R_(PNTMC)˜10 gigaohm, C_(Double Layer)˜800 pF, resulting in a timeconstant of ˜10 gigaohm*˜800 pF=˜8 second. Chopping the measurement at100 Hz then rejects DC drift and attenuates low frequency informationcontent in the measured tags by a factor of 1000.

Without any tags present, the PNTMC behaves similar to an alphahemolysin protein nanopore. The hemolysin nanopore has a rectifyingcharacteristic which changes its bias depending on the duty cycle of thesquare wave drive. Unlike the faradaic conduction case, the absolutevoltage applied to the electrode is not the same as the voltage appliedto the nanopore: the voltage on the double layer biases the potentialapplied to the nanopore, and this bias changes with the duty cycle.

FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate the nanopore current with non-faradaic ACmodulation. In this example, the applied signal is a 200 mV peak to peaksquare wave with a 50% duty cycle at 5 Hz. The electrolyte contains 0.5M Potassium Acetate and 10 mM KCl. The counter electrode 616 includesAgCl. The working electrode 610 is a platinum electrode withelectroplated platinum.

FIG. 9A shows the startup transient when 200 mV with positive polarityis applied to the nanopore, indicating that the open-channel currentwith 200 mV directly applied is approximately 70 pA. FIG. 9A shows thatthe steady state is reached after ˜20 seconds. In FIG. 9B, the decayrate of the voltage on the double layer capacitor can be observed. Thedecay rate is determined by the size of the double layer capacitance andthe nanopore load resistance.

FIG. 10 illustrates that the peak positive current at steady statevaries as a function of duty cycle and applied voltage. Plot 1010 showsthe steady state peak current in amperes (A) plotted against differentduty cycles when the applied voltage is a 200 mV peak to peak squarewave. Plot 1020 shows the steady state peak current (in A) plottedagainst different duty cycles when the applied voltage is a 100 mV peakto peak square wave. In this example, the electrolyte contains 0.5 MPotassium Acetate and 10 mM KCl. The counter electrode 616 includesAgCl. The working electrode 610 is a platinum electrode withelectroplated platinum. Since the hemolysin nanopore has a rectifyingcharacteristic (or is non-ohmic), a larger magnitude negative polarityvoltage is required to pass the same magnitude of current than when apositive polarity voltage is applied. The peak positive current drops asthe duty cycle is increased. The lower the duty cycle, the higher thepositive voltage applied to the nanopore through the double layercapacitance.

FIG. 11 illustrates an embodiment of a simulation model that was matchedto the data of FIG. 10. The simulation is constructed to estimate theactual voltage on the nanopore, which is not the same as the voltageapplied to the working electrode because of the double layer capacitorconnected in series with the nanopore. This voltage cannot be directlymeasured in the non-faradaic cases. The non-linearity in potassiumacetate was assumed to be directly proportional to the 1 M potassiumchloride non-linearity. FIGS. 12A and 12B illustrate the simulationresult when the applied signal has a 50% duty cycle. In FIG. 12B, theslope of the decay is steeper for the positive current than the negativecurrent because of the rectifying characteristics of the hemolysinnanopore, which is modeled with the polynomial equations B1 and B2 inFIG. 11.

FIG. 13A illustrates the measurement current when the applied signal hasa 25% duty cycle. FIG. 13B illustrates the simulated current when theapplied signal has a 25% duty cycle. These figures illustrate that witha lower duty cycle of 25%, the magnitude of the positive current (43 pA)through the nanopore is much larger than the magnitude of the negativecurrent (−13 pA) through the nanopore. In order to achieve no shuntresistance (no faradaic current) at steady state, the sum of thepositive and negative charge through the double layer over one period ofoscillation should be zero. As i=dQ/dt, where i=current and Q=charge, ina graph of current versus time, charge is the area under the curve. Forexample, if the area under the curve of the current versus time plot ofpositive polarity (area 1302 of FIG. 13B) is roughly the same as thearea under the curve of the current versus time plot of negativepolarity (area 1304 of FIG. 13B), then the sum of the positive andnegative charge through the double layer over one period of oscillationis close to zero.

FIG. 14A illustrates the voltage applied to the nanopore versus timewhen the applied signal has a 50% duty cycle. FIG. 14B illustrates thevoltage applied to the nanopore versus time when the applied signal hasa 25% duty cycle. With a lower duty cycle in FIG. 14B, the voltageapplied to the nanopore is higher, which draws the polymerase and thetag towards the nanopore with greater efficacy. With a longer duty cyclein FIG. 14A, more time is spent in reading and detecting the tag while anucleotide specific tail is in place.

FIG. 15 illustrates an embodiment of a process for identifying amolecule. At 1502, a molecule is drawn to a nanopore by applying a firstvoltage signal to a pair of electrodes (e.g., the working electrode andthe counter/reference electrode) during a first period, wherein thefirst voltage signal causes a first ionic current through the nanoporethat is indicative of a property of a portion of the molecule (e.g., atagged nucleotide) proximate to the nanopore. For example, the fourtypes of tagged nucleotides have different properties and when aparticular type of tagged nucleotide is drawn into the nanopore, anionic current indicative of the property flows through the nanopore.

At 1504, the molecule is released from the nanopore by applying a secondvoltage signal to the pair of electrodes during a second period, whereinthe second voltage signal causes a second ionic current through thenanopore.

At 1506, the first period and the second period are determined based atleast in part on a net ionic current through the nanopore comprising thefirst ionic current and the second ionic current. For example, the firstperiod and the second period can be determined such that the net ioniccurrent is reduced. In some embodiments, the net ionic current isreduced by setting the second voltage signal to off. When the secondvoltage signal is turned off, the second ionic current becomes zero andthe depletion of the metal electrode is delayed as explained above. Insome embodiments, the net ionic current is reduced by setting the secondvoltage signal to a signal with a polarity opposite from the firstvoltage signal. For example, alternating between the first voltagesignal and the second voltage signal makes an AC signal. The secondionic current offsets the first ionic current, thus reducing the netionic current through the nanopore. As shown in FIG. 10, the currentvaries as a function of duty cycle and applied voltage. Therefore, theduty cycle (i.e., the first period and the second period) can beadjusted such that the area under the curve of the first ionic currentis substantially the same as the area under the curve of the secondionic current such that the sum of the positive and negative chargethrough the double layer over one period of oscillation (i.e., the firstperiod and the second period) is close to zero.

FIG. 16 illustrates an embodiment of a circuitry 1600 in a cell of ananopore-based sequencing chip. As mentioned above, when the tag is heldin nanopore 1602, a unique conductance signal (e.g., see signal 210 inFIG. 2) is generated due to the tag's distinct chemical structures,thereby identifying the added base electronically. The circuitry in FIG.16 maintains a constant voltage across nanopore 1602 when the currentflow is measured. In particular, the circuitry includes an operationalamplifier 1604 and a pass device 1606 that maintain a constant voltageequal to V_(a) or V_(b) across nanopore 1602. The current flowingthrough nanopore 1602 is integrated at a capacitor n_(cap) 1608 andmeasured by an Analog-to-Digital (ADC) converter 1610.

However, circuitry 1600 has a number of drawbacks. One of the drawbacksis that circuitry 1600 only measures unidirectional current flow.Another drawback is that operational amplifier 1604 in circuitry 1600may introduce a number of performance issues. For example, the offsetvoltage and the temperature drift of operational amplifier 1604 maycause the actual voltage applied across nanopore 1602 to vary acrossdifferent cells. The actual voltage applied across nanopore 1602 maydrift by tens of millivolts above or below the desired value, therebycausing significant measurement inaccuracies. In addition, theoperational amplifier noise may cause additional detection errors.Another drawback is that the portions of the circuitry for maintaining aconstant voltage across the nanopore while current flow measurements aremade are area-intensive. For example, operational amplifier 1604occupies significantly more space in a cell than other components. Asthe nanopore-based sequencing chip is scaled to include more and morecells, the area occupied by the operational amplifiers may increase toan unattainable size. Unfortunately, shrinking the operationalamplifier's size in a nanopore-based sequencing chip with a large-sizedarray may raise other performance issues. For example, it may exacerbatethe offset and noise problems in the cells even further.

FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment of a circuitry 1700 in a cell of ananopore-based sequencing chip, wherein the voltage applied across thenanopore can be configured to vary over a time period during which thenanopore is in a particular detectable state. One of the possible statesof the nanopore is an open-channel state when a tag-attachedpolyphosphate is absent from the barrel of the nanopore. Another fourpossible states of the nanopore correspond to the states when the fourdifferent types of tag-attached polyphosphate nucleotides (A, T, G, orC) are held in the barrel of the nanopore. Yet another possible state ofthe nanopore is when the membrane is ruptured. FIGS. 18A and 18Billustrate additional embodiments of a circuitry (1800 and 1801) in acell of a nanopore-based sequencing chip, wherein the voltage appliedacross the nanopore can be configured to vary over a time period duringwhich the nanopore is in a particular detectable state. In the abovecircuits, the operational amplifier is no longer required.

FIG. 17 shows a nanopore 1702 that is inserted into a membrane 1712, andnanopore 1702 and membrane 1712 are situated between a cell workingelectrode 1714 and a counter electrode 1716, such that a voltage isapplied across nanopore 1702. In some embodiments, pass device 1706 thatmaintain a constant voltage equal to V_(a) or V_(b) across nanopore1702. The current flowing through nanopore 1702 is integrated at acapacitor n_(cap) 1708 and measured by an Analog-to-Digital (ADC)converter 1710. Nanopore 1702 is also in contact with a bulkliquid/electrolyte 1718. Note that nanopore 1702 and membrane 1712 aredrawn upside down as compared to the nanopore and membrane in FIG. 1.Hereinafter, a cell is meant to include at least a membrane, a nanopore,a working cell electrode, and the associated circuitry. In someembodiments, the counter electrode is shared between a plurality ofcells, and is therefore also referred to as a common electrode. Thecommon electrode can be configured to apply a common potential to thebulk liquid in contact with the nanopores in the measurements cells. Thecommon potential and the common electrode are common to all of themeasurement cells. There is a working cell electrode within eachmeasurement cell; in contrast to the common electrode, working cellelectrode 1714 is configurable to apply a distinct potential that isindependent from the working cell electrodes in other measurement cells.

In FIGS. 18A and 18B, instead of showing a nanopore inserted in amembrane and the liquid surrounding the nanopore, an electrical model1802 representing the electrical properties of the nanopore and themembrane. Electrical model 1802 includes a capacitor 1806 that models acapacitance associated with the membrane (C_(membrane)) and a resistor1804 that models a resistance associated with the nanopore in differentstates (e.g., the open-channel state or the states corresponding tohaving different types of tags/molecules inside the nanopore). Thecapacitance associated with the working electrode may be referred to asa double layer capacitance (C_(dl)). Note in FIGS. 18A and 18B that therespective circuitry may not require an extra capacitor (e.g., n_(cap)1608 in FIG. 16) that is fabricated on-chip, thereby facilitating thereduction in size of the nanopore-based sequencing chip.

FIG. 19 illustrates an embodiment of a process 1900 for analyzing amolecule inside a nanopore, wherein the nanopore is inserted in amembrane. Process 1900 may be performed using the circuitries shown inFIG. 17, 18A, or 18B. FIG. 20 illustrates an embodiment of a plot of thevoltage applied across the nanopore versus time when process 1900 isperformed and repeated three times. As will be described in greaterdetail below, the voltage applied across the nanopore is not heldconstant. In contrast, the voltage applied across the nanopore changesover time. The rate of the voltage decay (i.e., the steepness of theslope of the applied voltage across the nanopore versus time plot)depends on the cell resistance (e.g., the resistance of resistor 1804 inFIG. 18A). More particularly, as the resistance associated with thenanopore in different states (e.g., the open-channel state, the statescorresponding to having different types of tags/molecules inside thenanopore, and the state when the membrane is ruptured) is different dueto the molecules'/tags' distinct chemical structures, differentcorresponding rates of voltage decay may be observed and thus may beused to identify the different states of the nanopore.

With reference to FIG. 19 and FIG. 18A, at 1902 of process 1900, avoltage is applied across the nanopore by coupling the nanopore to avoltage source. For example, as shown in FIG. 18A, a voltage V_(pre)1810 is applied to the cell working electrode when a switch S1 1808 isclosed. As shown in FIG. 20, the initial voltage applied across thenanopore is V_(pre)−V_(liquid), where V_(liquid) is the voltage of thebulk liquid in contact with the nanopore. As the voltage source isconnected to the working electrode, the capacitor associated with themembrane is charged and energy is stored in an electric field across themembrane.

At 1904 of process 1900, the capacitor associated with the membrane(capacitor 1806) is discharged by decoupling the nanopore and themembrane from the voltage source, and the energy stored in the electricfield across the membrane is thereby dissipated. For example, as shownin FIG. 18A, the voltage source is disconnected when switch S1 1808 isopened. After switch S1 1808 is opened, the voltage across the nanoporebegins to decay exponentially, as shown in FIG. 20. The exponentialdecay has an RC time constant τ=RC, where R is the resistance associatedwith the nanopore (resistor 1804) and C is the capacitance associatedwith the membrane (capacitor 1806) in parallel with R.

At 1906 of process 1900, a rate of the decay of the voltage appliedacross the nanopore is determined. The rate of the voltage decay is thesteepness of the slope of the applied voltage across the nanopore versustime curve, as shown in FIG. 20. The rate of the voltage decay may bedetermined in different ways.

In some embodiments, the rate of the voltage decay is determined bymeasuring a voltage decay that occurs during a fixed time interval. Forexample, the voltage applied at the working electrode is first measuredby ADC 1812 at time t₁, and then the voltage is again measured by ADC1812 at time t₂. The voltage difference ΔV_(applied) is greater when theslope of the voltage across the nanopore versus time curve is steeper,and the voltage difference ΔV_(applied) is smaller when the slope of thevoltage curve is less steep. Thus, ΔV_(applied) may be used as a metricfor determining the rate of the decay of the voltage applied across thenanopore. In some embodiments, to increase the accuracy of themeasurement of the rate of voltage decay, the voltage may be measuredadditional times at fixed intervals. For example, the voltage may bemeasured at t₃, t₄, and so on, and the multiple measurements ofΔV_(applied) during the multiple time intervals may be jointly used as ametric for determining the rate of the decay of the voltage appliedacross the nanopore. In some embodiments, to increase the accuracy ofthe measurement of the rate of voltage decay, correlated double sampling(CDS) may be used.

In some embodiments, the rate of the voltage decay is determined bymeasuring a time duration that is required for a selected amount ofvoltage decay. In some embodiments, the time required for the voltage todrop from a fixed voltage V₁ to a second fixed voltage V₂ may bemeasured. The time required is less when the slope of the voltage curveis steeper, and the time required is greater when the slope of thevoltage curve is less steep. Thus, the measured time required may beused as a metric for determining the rate of the decay of the voltageapplied across the nanopore.

At 1908 of process 1900, a state of the nanopore is determined based onthe determined rate of voltage decay. One of the possible states of thenanopore is an open-channel state during which a tag-attachedpolyphosphate is absent from the barrel of the nanopore. Other possiblestates of the nanopore correspond to the states when different types ofmolecules are held in the barrel of the nanopore. For example, anotherfour possible states of the nanopore correspond to the states when thefour different types of tag-attached polyphosphate nucleotides (A, T, G,or C) are held in the barrel of the nanopore. Yet another possible stateof the nanopore is when the membrane is ruptured. The state of thenanopore can be determined based on the determined rate of voltagedecay, because the rate of the voltage decay depends on the cellresistance, i.e., the resistance of resistor 1804 in FIG. 18A. Moreparticularly, as the resistances associated with the nanopore indifferent states are different due to the molecules/tags' distinctchemical structures, different corresponding rates of voltage decay maybe observed and thus may be used to identify the different states of thenanopore.

FIG. 21 illustrates an embodiment of the plots of the voltage appliedacross the nanopore versus time when the nanopore is in differentstates. Curve 2102 shows the rate of voltage decay during anopen-channel state. In some embodiments, the resistance associated withthe nanopore in an open-channel state is in the range of 100 Mohm to 20Gohm. Curves 2104, 2106, 2108, and 2110 show the different rates ofvoltage decay corresponding to the four capture states when the fourdifferent types of tag-attached polyphosphate nucleotides (A, T, G, orC) are held in the barrel of the nanopore. In some embodiments, theresistance associated with the nanopore in a capture state is within therange of 200 Mohm to 40 Gohm. Note that the slope of each of the plotsis distinguishable from each other.

At 1910 of process 1900, it is determined whether process 1900 isrepeated. For example, the process may be repeated a plurality of timesto detect each state of the nanopore. If the process is not repeated,then process 1900 terminates; otherwise, the process restarts at 1902again. At 1902, a voltage is reasserted across the nanopore byconnecting to the voltage source. For example, as shown in FIG. 18A, avoltage V_(pre) 1810 is applied across the nanopore when switch S1 1808is closed. As shown in FIG. 20, the applied voltage 2002 jumps back upto the level of V_(pre). As process 1900 is repeated a plurality oftimes, a saw-tooth like voltage waveform is applied across the nanoporeover time. FIG. 20 also illustrates an extrapolation curve 2004 showingthe RC voltage decay over time had the voltage V_(pre) 1810 not beenreasserted.

As shown above, configuring the voltage applied across the nanopore tovary over a time period during which the nanopore is in a particulardetectable state has many advantages. One of the advantages is that theelimination of the operational amplifier, the pass device, and thecapacitor (e.g., n_(cap) 1608 in FIG. 16) that are otherwise fabricatedon-chip in the cell circuitry significantly reduces the footprint of asingle cell in the nanopore-based sequencing chip, thereby facilitatingthe scaling of the nanopore-based sequencing chip to include more andmore cells (e.g., having millions of cells in a nanopore-basedsequencing chip). The capacitance in parallel with the nanopore includestwo portions: the capacitance associated with the membrane and thecapacitance associated with the integrated chip (IC). Due to the thinnature of the membrane, the capacitance associated with the membranealone can suffice to create the required RC time constant without theneed for additional on-chip capacitance, thereby allowing significantreduction in cell size and chip size.

Another advantage is that the circuitry of a cell does not suffer fromoffset inaccuracies because V_(pre) is applied directly to the workingelectrode without any intervening circuitry. Another advantage is thatsince no switches are being opened or closed during the measurementintervals, the amount of charge injection is minimized.

Furthermore, the technique described above operates equally well usingpositive voltages or negative voltages. Bidirectional measurements havebeen shown to be helpful in characterizing a molecular complex. Inaddition, bidirectional measurements are required when the type of ionicflow that is driven through the nanopore is via non-faradaic conduction.Two types of ionic flow can be driven through the nanopore—faradaicconduction and non-faradaic conduction. In faradaic conduction, achemical reaction occurs at the surface of the metal electrode. Thefaradaic current is the current generated by the reduction or oxidationof some chemical substances at an electrode. The advantage ofnon-faradaic conduction is that no chemical reaction happens at thesurface of the metal electrode.

FIG. 22 is a circuit diagram illustrating an embodiment of a circuitryof a cell of a nanopore-based sequencing chip, wherein the sequencingchip includes an analog memory for storing measurement values.

In one approach, a nanopore measurement of an analog circuit value(e.g., voltage, current, resistance, charge, capacitance, time, etc.)may be captured at regular intervals and converted to a digitalrepresentation for processing. Often two measurement values aresubtracted from each other in order to determine whether a notable eventhas been detected for the nanopore. In large highly parallel systemswith one million cells, outputting values to be subtracted digitallyusing a processor can be time-consuming and bandwidth limited. In someembodiments, rather than outputting every circuit measurement in adigital form to be stored and digitally processed, at least twomeasurements are captured for different measurement samples at differenttimes using analog components and subtracted to only digitally outputthe difference value between the two measurements rather than digitallyoutputting the absolute values of both of the two measurements. Forexample, two circuit measurements are stored by two separate capacitorsby charging/discharging the capacitors to levels that correspond to themeasurements that are subtracted from each other by an analog-to-digital(i.e., ADC) converter to output a digital difference value. In somecases, not only will outputting the difference rather than the absolutevalues save communication, storage, and digital processing resources,the analog storage and differential measurement of the ADC may begenerally less susceptible to injected noise (e.g., from the substrate).

The magnitude of the difference may be utilized to identify events ofinterest. For example, in the event the difference value is greater thana threshold, the magnitude of the difference value is utilized toidentify that a nanopore has been threaded (e.g., open nanopore channelto a tag threaded nanopore) and in the event the difference value isless than the threshold, it is identified that the state of the nanoporeremains unchanged (e.g., difference and associated values may bediscarded if state difference has not been detected). In someembodiments, the difference value may indicate a change in valueresulting from an open nanopore channel on the positive phase of an ACstimulus voltage source to remaining an open nanopore channel on thenegative phase of the AC stimulus voltage source. In some embodiments,the difference value may indicate a change in value resulting from anopen nanopore channel on the negative phase of an AC stimulus voltagesource to a tag threaded nanopore on the positive phase of the ACstimulus voltage source.

Circuit 2200 includes an electrical model 2202 representing theelectrical properties of the nanopore and the membrane and capacitor2214 representing the electrical properties of the working electrode.Electrical model 2202 includes capacitor 2206 that models a capacitanceassociated with the lipid bilayer (C_(bilayer)) and resistor 2204 thatmodels a resistance associated with the nanopore in different states(e.g., the open-channel state or the states corresponding to differenttypes of tags/molecules threaded inside the nanopore). Capacitor 2214that models a capacitance associated with the working electrode. Thecapacitance associated with the working electrode is also referred to asa double layer capacitance (C_(dbl)).

The rate of the voltage decay (e.g., the steepness of the slope of theapplied voltage across the nanopore versus time) across 2202 depends onthe resistance of the nanopore (i.e., R_(pore) 2204). As the resistancesassociated with the nanopore in different states (e.g., the open-channelstate, the states corresponding to having different types oftags/molecules inside the nanopore, and the state when the membrane isruptured) are different due to the molecules'/tags' distinct chemicalstructures, different corresponding rates of voltage decay may beobserved and thus may be used to identify the different states of thenanopore.

Capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210 each allows the voltage across modelcapacitors 2206 and 2214 to be effectively captured and stored (e.g.,each of capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210 effectively “integrates” thecurrent flowing through the nanopore) for samples measured at differentpoints in time, in effect creating an analog memory. For example, onevoltage sample measurement for one sample measurement is stored incapacitor 2208 and a subsequent sample measurement is stored incapacitor 2210. These stored values may be read out and subtracted tooutput a difference value rather than (or in addition to) absolutevalues of both capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210. Capacitor 2208 andcapacitor 2210 may store consecutive sample values or non-consecutivesample values.

A network of switches is utilized to control the preparation, capture,and storage of measurement samples at one or more analog memorycapacitors. Switch 2224 may be utilized to connect and disconnect thenanopore and the electrodes from measurement circuitry. For example,switch 2224 is closed after a bilayer is formed and switch 2224 remainsopen when there is no bilayer (e.g., due to very low impedance when nobilayer is present). When initializing capacitor 2208 to capture asample measurement, capacitor 2208 is initially precharged. Switch 2216,switch 2218, and switch 2224 are closed while switch 2220 and switch2222 are open. At this point, capacitor 2208 is charged to the voltagelevel of voltage source 2212. Then to start the capture, switch 2216 isopened and the charge stored in capacitor 2208 is dissipated byeffective model resistor 2204. The rate of voltage decay depends on thevalue of resistor 2204 (e.g., resistance of nanopore corresponding tothe type of tag/molecule inside the nanopore) and the decay may bestopped for capture by also opening switch 2218. At this point, thestored voltage/charge of capacitor 2208 is only subject to minimal decay(e.g., subject to minor charge leakage which may be quantified and/orcompensated) and this voltage/charge is effectively stored for later usewhile another measurement sample is determined and stored in capacitor2210 using switches 2220 and 2222 while switches 2216 and 2218 remainopen. In some embodiments, the measurements stored in capacitor 2208 andcapacitor 2210 are consecutive measurement samples. For example, storageof charge/voltage corresponding to the state of the nanopore is toggledbetween capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210 for each subsequent samplemeasurement. In some embodiments, the measurements stored in capacitor2208 and capacitor 2210 are not consecutive measurement samples. Forexample, once a measurement is stored in one analog storage capacitor,the subsequent measurement samples are stored and replaced in the otheranalog storage capacitor until a difference between the charges/voltagesstored in the capacitors is greater than a difference threshold value.

The voltage stored in capacitor 2208 may be read out using outputcircuitry by closing switch 2232 to allow transistor 2228 to output thevoltage. The voltage stored in capacitor 2210 may be read out by closingswitch 2230 to allow transistor 2226 to output the voltage. Theoutputted voltage values may be provided to comparison circuitry (e.g.,a comparator, an analog-to-digital converter, etc.) that subtracts theoutputted voltages. In some embodiments, only the difference value isoutputted rather than the absolute/actual output voltage valuescorresponding to the two different measurement samples. In someembodiments, the difference value and the absolute/actual output voltagevalues corresponding to the two different measurement samples areoutputted. In some embodiments, in the event the difference value isless than a threshold, the difference value is discarded and notoutputted.

Circuit 2200 may only show a portion of a circuit of one cell of aplurality of cells of a biochip. In some embodiments, the cells of thebiochip are organized in a grid of rows and columns (e.g., each columnof cells may output a plurality of column values) and each row of cellsis read out substantially simultaneously. The outputs shown in circuit2200 may represent only two column outputs of a plurality of columnvalues of a row of cells of the biochip being readout. Although theexample shown in FIG. 22 shows a circuit designed to store only twovoltage values of a nanopore, in other embodiments, the example of FIG.22 may be extended to allow a circuit to store any number of voltagevalues of the nanopore by utilizing additional capacitors, switches andoutput circuitry. The switches shown in FIG. 22 may be any type ofswitch. Transistor 2226 and 2228 are merely examples and any other typeof output circuitry may be utilized to read out electrical values ofcapacitor 2208 and/or 2210.

In the example shown, voltage source 2240 is an AC voltage source. Forexample the counter electrode is immersed in the electrolyte above thebilayer and an AC non-Faradaic mode is utilized to modulate a squarewave voltage source as V_(liq) 2240. The square wave voltage source maycause the potential of its counter electrode to be at a higher level ascompared to the other electrode during the positive phase of the squarewave (i.e., dark period of the AC voltage source signal cycle) and at alower level compared to the other electrode at the negative phase of thesquare wave (i.e., bright period of the AC voltage source signal cycle).Given this potential difference, capacitor 2208 may be charged duringthe dark period and discharged during the bright period. Generallyduring the bright period, the molecule/tag is attracted to be threadedinto the nanopore while during the dark period, the molecule/tag isgenerally repelled away from the nanopore (e.g., causing the nanopore tobe in an open-channel state during the dark period). Thus in someembodiments, tag detection is only performed during the bright periodwhen a tag is attracted to the nanopore.

By determining the voltage difference between two different measurementsamples, the transition between dark periods and bright periods may beidentified (e.g., identify when the difference is greater than athreshold value). Additionally it may take a variable amount of timeduring the bright period for a tag to be threaded in the nanopore.During the waiting period, while waiting for the nanopore to bethreaded, obtained voltage samples may remain relatively constant,representing the open-channel state of the nanopore, and may not be ofinterest until the nanopore is threaded. By determining a differencebetween voltage sample measurements and detecting when the difference iswithin a certain threshold range, nanopore threading may be detected andthe magnitude of the difference may indicate the type of molecule/threadof the threading. By utilizing analog memory to determine thedifference, processing and storage efficiencies may be gained. In somecases, the threading during the bright period may take place quickly andan open-channel nanopore state may not be detected/sampled during abright period before detecting the threaded state because the threadedstate is achieved prior to the first sampling/measurement of thenanopore during the bight period. In order to detect this quickthreading, a difference between a voltage measurement of an open-channelstate during a dark period stored in one analog storage capacitor and avoltage measurement of the threaded nanopore state during a subsequentbright period stored in another analog storage capacitor is utilized(e.g., difference is within a specific range) to detect the threadedstate and the magnitude of the difference may indicate the type ofmolecule/thread of the threading.

In an alternative embodiment, Faradaic mode is utilized with a DCvoltage source instead of the AC voltage source.

FIG. 23 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process formeasuring a nanopore. The process of FIG. 23 may be implemented oncircuit 2200 of FIG. 22. Although the example of FIG. 23 is describedusing the circuit of FIG. 22, in various embodiments, circuits otherthan the circuit of FIG. 22 may implement the process of FIG. 23.

As the resistance associated with the nanopore varies according to itsdifferent states (e.g., the open-channel state, the states correspondingto having different types of tags/molecules inside the nanopore, thestate when the membrane is ruptured, etc.) due to the differentmolecules/tags inside the nanopore, different corresponding rates ofvoltage decay may be observed across the nanopore and utilized toidentify the different states of the nanopore.

At 2302, a nanopore measurement circuit is prepared for a measurementsample to be stored in a first analog storage. For example, circuit 2200of FIG. 22 is configured to store a nanopore voltage measurement inanalog memory capacitor 2208. In some embodiments, preparing thenanopore measurement circuit includes configuring one or more switchesto charge (or discharge) the first analog storage capacitor. Forexample, switch 2216 is closed (e.g., switch 2220 is left open to notaffect capacitor 2210) to charge (or discharge) capacitor 2208 toV_(pre). In some embodiments, voltage is applied across the nanopore bycoupling the nanopore to a voltage source. For example, a voltageV_(pre) 2212 is applied to the nanopore by closing switch 2218 as well(e.g., while switch 2216 is also closed) to charge the effectivecapacitance of model capacitors 2214 and 2206. As the voltage source isconnected to the working electrode, the capacitor associated with themembrane is charged and energy is stored in an electric field across themembrane. This initial voltage applied across the nanopore may beV_(pre)−V_(liquid), where V_(liquid) is the voltage of the bulk liquidin contact with the nanopore, where V_(liquid) may be an AC voltage(e.g., square wave voltage source centered around V_(pre)). In someembodiments, there exists a switch that connects the nanopore to thenanopore measurement circuit and this switch remains closed in 2302. Forexample, switch 2224 remains closed after a bilayer is formed and switch2224 remains open when there is no bilayer (e.g., due to very lowimpedance when no bilayer is present).

At 2304, a next captured circuit measurement sample is captured in thefirst analog storage. For example, the first analog storage capacitor isfurther charged or discharged to capture the next measurement sample ofthe nanopore. For example, the nanopore is decoupled from a voltagesource and the energy stored in the first analog storage capacitor isdischarged by the resistance of the nanopore during a bright period ofan AC voltage reference of a counter electrode. In another example, thenanopore is decoupled from a voltage source and the energy stored in thefirst analog storage capacitor is charged by the resistance of thenanopore during a dark period of the AC voltage reference of the counterelectrode. The rate of decay or charge of the voltage of the nanopore isassociated with the resistance and/or current of the nanopore that isindicative of the state of the molecule/tag that may be inserted in orremoved from the nanopore. The resulting charge/energy/voltage of thefirst analog storage capacitor after a set period of time may identifythis state of the nanopore given the known rate of decay/chargeassociated with each state. The energy/charge/voltage stored in thefirst analog storage capacitor may serve as the proxy for a measurementof the resistance and/or current of the nanopore. In some embodiments,switch 2216 of FIG. 22 is opened to decouple power source 2212 fromcapacitor 2208 and the resistance of the nanopore affects the rate ofdischarging or charging (e.g., due to the phase of the AC voltagereference) of capacitor 2208.

At 2306, the captured measurement of 2304 is stored in the first analogstorage capacitor. For example, by allowing the first analog storagecapacitor to be dissipated for a set amount of the time, a largernanopore resistance will dissipate a larger amount ofenergy/charge/voltage as compared to a smaller resistance in the sameamount of time. In another example, the first analog storage capacitoris charged during the lower voltage phases of the AC voltage referencebeyond the initial charge in 2302 at a rate based on the resistance ofthe nanopore. The energy/charge/voltage stored in the first analogstorage capacitor may serve as the proxy for a measurement of theresistance/current of the nanopore to identify the state of thenanopore. In some embodiments, in order to preserve and stop themeasurement and store the measurement, a switch is opened at a set time.For example, switch 2218 is opened to decouple the nanopore fromcapacitor 2208 to store the measurement sample in the first analogstorage capacitor.

At 2308, a difference value of the difference of the stored measurementsis outputted, if applicable. For example, in addition to the measurementvoltage stored in the first storage capacitor, a previously storedmeasurement voltage stored in a second analog storage capacitor (e.g.,stored in 2316) is provided to be subtracted. In the event this is thefirst execution instance of step 2308, step 2308 may be not performedbecause a measurement has not been stored in the second analog storagecapacitor. In some embodiments, providing the difference value includesclosing one or more switches to provide measurements of analog storagesstoring measurement samples to be subtracted. For example, switch 2230and/or switch 2232 is closed to provide the voltages of capacitor 2208and/or capacitor 2210 of FIG. 22. In some embodiments, the cells of thebiochip are organized in a grid of rows and columns (e.g., each columnof cells may output a plurality of column values) and each row of cellsis read out substantially simultaneously. The outputs may represent onlya portion of a plurality of column values of a row of cells of thebiochip being readout. In some embodiments, the stored measurement(s)are compensated for leakage of the analog storage capacitor storing thecharge/energy/voltage of the measurement. For example, charge of theanalog storage capacitor may naturally dissipate at a low rate due to alimitation of the capacitor size and this leakage is corrected bydetermining the leakage rate of the capacitor and adding to the voltageoutput of the capacitor a compensation value that corresponds to theamount of likely leakage based on the determined leakage rate and anamount of time the measurement has been stored by the capacitor. In someembodiments, after the stored measurement(s) have been provided, outputswitch(es) are opened. For example, switches 2230 and 2232 are opened.

In some embodiments, the provided measurements of the analog storagecapacitors are utilized to determine a difference between themeasurements. For example, the voltage output of the first analogstorage capacitor is subtracted from the voltage output of the secondanalog storage capacitor. In some embodiments, the providedmeasurement(s) from the analog storage capacitors are subtracted fromeach other using one or more of the following: an analog-to-digitalconverter, a comparator, and any other circuit components. Bydetermining the difference using the output analog values instead ofusing a digital microprocessor to subtract values that have beenconverted and stored digitally, efficiency in digital memory storage anddigital computation resources may be gained. The difference may beutilized to detect the timing and the degree of change in a status of ananopore. For example, while the nanopore is periodically sampled, thetransition between states of the nanopore may be of importance. Todetect these transitions between different states of the nanopore, adifference measurement that is greater than a threshold value mayindicate that a change has occurred (e.g., nanopore transition from anopen-channel to a state where a tag has been inserted in the nanopore)and the difference value of the change may indicate the exact new stateof the nanopore given known difference values expected for differentnanopore state transition changes. In some embodiments, the outputteddifference value is outputted as a part of an output of a biochip. Theoutputted difference may indicate no change (e.g., change belowthreshold) in value between two measurements, a change in nanopore stateresulting from a switch from an open nanopore channel to a tag threadednanopore, a change in phase of an AC reference voltage, or a change innanopore state resulting from a switch from an open nanopore channel onthe negative phase of an AC reference voltage source to a tag threadednanopore on the positive phase of the AC reference voltage source.

In some embodiments, in the event the difference is below a threshold,the difference value is not outputted. For example, a biochip may bebandwidth limited on the amount of data it is able to output and inorder to conserve the amount of data to be outputted from the biochip,an actual difference value is not outputted if the difference value isbelow a threshold because a change in state of a nanopore has not beendetected. In some embodiments, in the event the difference is below athreshold, instead of outputting the actual value of the difference, anindication that the difference value is below a threshold is provided(e.g., indication that state of the nanopore has not changed during abright period). In some embodiments, in addition to outputting thedifference value, the values of the stored measurements of the analogstorage capacitors are outputted as well (e.g., digital values of theprovided measurements of capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210 that wereutilized to determine the difference value).

In some embodiments, in the event the difference value is below athreshold, the process returns to 2302. For example, rather thancontinuing the process of FIG. 23 to toggle between storing the samplemeasurements in different analog storage capacitors, the same analogstorage capacitor is utilized to store the next measurement sample. Thismay reduce switching time between analog storage capacitors and/or allowcomparison between two non-consecutive measurement samples if the otheranalog storage capacitor is storing a previous measurement sample.Nonconsecutive measurement sample comparisons may be allowable becausethe measurement value remains relatively constant between measurementsamples if the state of the nanopore remains constant and the phase ofthe AC reference voltage source has not changed. In some embodiments, inthe event the difference value is below a threshold, the process onlyreturns to 2302 if a second analog storage capacitor is storing ameasurement value (e.g., stored in 2316) and a change in phase of the ACreference voltage source has not been detected in 2308.

At 2312, the nanopore measurement circuit is prepared for a measurementsample to be stored in a second analog storage. For example, circuit2200 of FIG. 22 is configured to store a nanopore voltage measurement inanalog memory capacitor 2210. In some embodiments, preparing thenanopore measurement circuit includes configuring one or more switchesto charge (or discharge) the second analog storage capacitor. Forexample, switch 2220 is closed (e.g., switch 2216 is left open to notaffect capacitor 2208) to charge (or discharge) capacitor 2210 toV_(pre). In some embodiments, voltage is applied across the nanopore bycoupling the nanopore to a voltage source. For example, a voltageV_(pre) 2212 is applied to the nanopore by closing switch 2222 as well(e.g., while switch 2220 is also closed) to charge the effectivecapacitance of model capacitors 2214 and 2206. As the voltage source isconnected to the working electrode, the capacitor associated with themembrane is charged and energy is stored in an electric field across themembrane. This initial voltage applied across the nanopore may beV_(pre)−V_(liquid), where V_(liquid) is the voltage of the bulk liquidin contact with the nanopore, where V_(liquid) may be an AC voltage(e.g., square wave voltage source centered around V_(pre)). In someembodiments, there exists a switch that connects the nanopore to thenanopore measurement circuit and this switch remains closed in 2302. Forexample, switch 2224 remains closed after a bilayer is formed and switch2224 remains open when there is no bilayer (e.g., due to very lowimpedance when no bilayer is present).

At 2314, a next circuit measurement sample is captured in the secondanalog storage. For example, the second analog storage capacitor isfurther charged or discharged to capture the next measurement sample ofthe nanopore. For example, the nanopore is decoupled from a voltagesource and the energy stored in the second analog storage capacitor isdischarged by the resistance of the nanopore during a bright period ofan AC voltage reference of a counter electrode. In another example, thenanopore is decoupled from a voltage source and the energy stored in thesecond analog storage capacitor is charged by the resistance of thenanopore during a dark period of the AC voltage reference of the counterelectrode. The rate of decay or charge of the voltage of the nanopore isassociated with the resistance and/or current of the nanopore that isindicative of the state of the molecule/tag that may be inserted in orremoved from the nanopore. The resulting charge/energy/voltage of thesecond analog storage capacitor after a set period of time may identifythis state of the nanopore given the known rate of decay/chargeassociated with each state. The energy/charge/voltage stored in thesecond analog storage capacitor may serve as the proxy for a measurementof the resistance and/or current of the nanopore. In some embodiments,switch 2220 of FIG. 22 is opened to decouple power source 2212 fromcapacitor 2210 and the resistance of the nanopore affects the rate ofdischarging or charging (e.g., due to the phase of the AC voltagereference) of capacitor 2208. In some embodiments, in order to capturethe measurement sample, a switch is opened at a set time. For example,switch 2222 is opened to decouple the nanopore from capacitor 2210. Insome embodiments, the stored voltage of the second analog storagecapacitor is the voltage difference across effective capacitors 2214 and2206. In various embodiments, the set amount of time when the switch isopened to stop the dissipation of the second analog storage capacitor in2314 is the same as the set amount of time when the switch is opened tostop the dissipation of the first analog storage capacitor in 2306.

At 2316, the captured measurement of 2314 is stored in the second analogstorage capacitor. For example, by allowing the second analog storagecapacitor to be dissipated for a set amount of the time, a largernanopore resistance will dissipate a smaller amount ofenergy/charge/voltage as compared to a smaller resistance in the sameamount of time. In another example, the second analog storage capacitoris charged during the lower voltage phases of the AC voltage referencebeyond the initial charge in 2312 at a rate based on the resistance ofthe nanopore. The energy/charge/voltage stored in the second analogstorage capacitor may serve as the proxy for a measurement of theresistance/current of the nanopore to identify the state of thenanopore. In some embodiments, in order to preserve and stop themeasurement and store the measurement, a switch is opened at a set time.For example, switch 2222 is opened to decouple the nanopore fromcapacitor 2210 to store the measurement sample in the second analogstorage capacitor.

At 2318, a difference value of the difference of the stored measurementsis outputted, if applicable. For example, in addition to the measurementvoltage stored in the second storage capacitor, a previously storedmeasurement voltage stored in the first analog storage capacitor (e.g.,stored in 2306) are provided to be subtracted. In some embodiments,providing the difference includes closing one or more switches toprovide measurements of analog storages storing measurement samples tobe subtracted. For example, switch 2230 and/or switch 2232 is closed toprovide the voltages of capacitor 2208 and/or capacitor 2210 of FIG. 22.In some embodiments, the cells of the biochip are organized in a grid ofrows and columns (e.g., each column of cells may output a plurality ofcolumn values) and each row of cells is read out substantiallysimultaneously. The outputs may represent only a portion of a pluralityof column values of a row of cells of the biochip being readout. In someembodiments, the stored measurement(s) are compensated for leakage ofthe analog storage capacitor storing the charge/energy/voltage of themeasurement. For example, charge of the analog storage capacitor maynaturally dissipate at a low rate due to a limitation of the capacitorand this leakage is corrected by determining the leakage rate of thecapacitor and adding to the voltage output of the capacitor acompensation value that corresponds to the amount of likely leakagebased on the determined leakage rate and an amount of time themeasurement has been stored by the capacitor. In some embodiments, afterthe stored measurement(s) have been provided, output switch(es) areopened. For example, switches 2230 and 2232 are opened.

In some embodiments, the provided measurements of the analog storagecapacitors are utilized to determine a difference between themeasurements. For example, the voltage output of the second analogstorage capacitor is subtracted from the voltage output of the firstanalog storage capacitor. In some embodiments, the providedmeasurement(s) from the analog storage capacitors are subtracted fromeach other using one or more of the following: an analog-to-digitalconverter, a comparator, and any other circuit components. Bydetermining the difference using the output analog values instead ofusing a digital microprocessor to subtract values that have beenconverted and stored digitally, efficiency in digital memory storage anddigital computation resources may be gained. The difference may beutilized to detect the timing and the degree of change in a status of ananopore. For example, while the nanopore is periodically sampled, thetransition between states of the nanopore may be of importance. Todetect these transitions between different states of the nanopore, adifference measurement that is greater than a threshold value mayindicate that a change has occurred (e.g., nanopore transition from anopen-channel to a state where a tag has been inserted in the nanopore)and the difference value of the change may indicate the exact new stateof the nanopore given known difference values expected for differentnanopore state transition changes. In some embodiments, the outputteddifference value is outputted as a part of an output of a biochip. Theoutputted difference may indicate no change (e.g., change belowthreshold) in value between two measurements, a change in nanopore stateresulting from a switch from an open nanopore channel to a tag threadednanopore, a change in phase of an AC reference voltage, or a change innanopore state resulting from a switch from an open nanopore channel onthe negative phase of an AC reference voltage source to a tag threadednanopore on the positive phase of the AC reference voltage source.

In some embodiments, in the event the difference is below a threshold,the difference value is not outputted. For example, a biochip may bebandwidth limited on the amount of data it is able to output and inorder to conserve the amount of data to be outputted from the biochip,an actual difference value is not outputted if the difference value isbelow a threshold because a change in state of a nanopore has not beendetected. In some embodiments, in the event the difference is below athreshold, instead of outputting the actual value of the difference, anindication that the difference value is below a threshold is provided(e.g., indication that state of the nanopore has not changed during abright period). In some embodiments, in addition to outputting thedifference value, the values of the stored measurements of the analogstorage capacitors are outputted as well (e.g., digital values of theprovided measurements of capacitor 2208 and capacitor 2210 that wereutilized to determine the difference value).

In some embodiments, in the event the difference value is below athreshold in 2318, the process returns to 2312. For example, rather thancontinuing the process of FIG. 23 to toggle between storing the samplemeasurements in different analog storage capacitors, the same analogstorage capacitor is utilized to store the next measurement sample. Thismay reduce switching time between analog storage capacitors and/or allowcomparison between two non-consecutive measurement samples if the otheranalog storage capacitor is storing a previous measurement sample.Nonconsecutive measurement sample comparisons may be allowable becausethe measurement value remains relatively constant between measurementsamples if the state of the nanopore remains constant and the phase ofthe AC reference voltage source has not changed. In some embodiments, inthe event the difference value is below a threshold, the process onlyreturns to 2312 if a change in phase of the AC reference voltage sourcehas not been detected in 2318.

The process of FIG. 23 is repeated until a stopping criteria is reached.For example, the process of FIG. 23 is stopped after a predeterminedamount of time and/or an amount of measurement samples has beenoutputted. In some embodiments, the process of FIG. 23 is stopped whennanopore measurement is to be stopped. The steps of FIG. 23 may occur ata consistent periodic rate. For example, it is desired to capturemeasurements of the nanopore at a consistent periodic rate and the stepsof FIG. 23 are set at a rate to achieve the desired consistent samplingrate. For example, the timing between step 2306 and/or step 2316 is at aconsistent time interval.

FIG. 24 is a diagram illustrating a graph of circuit measurements whenan AC voltage source is utilized as a reference voltage of a counterelectrode of a nanopore. For example, a square AC voltage source isutilized as voltage source 2240 of FIG. 22. The graphs of FIG. 24 showgraphs prior to introducing tags and consequently the graphs do not showinsertion of any tags in the nanopore. The nanopore is effectively in aconsistent open-channel state. Graph 2402 shows a graph of an AC voltagesource. A square wave voltage source with the labeled bright periods anddark periods is shown. Only a portion of the signals have been shown.Graph 2404 shows the corresponding voltage across the nanopore. Forexample, the voltage across effective capacitor 2206 and resistor 2204of FIG. 22 is shown. The “saw tooth” shape of the voltage results fromthe discharging (during bright periods) and charging (during darkperiods) of the capacitance associated with the bilayer of the nanoporefor measurement samples during the bright and dark periods. Each “sawtooth” corresponds to each measurement sample that is taken. Graph 2406shows the corresponding current across the nanopore. For example,current across effective resistor 2204 of FIG. 22 is graphed. Graph 2408shows the corresponding voltage across an analog storage capacitor. Each“saw tooth” corresponds to each sample measurement that is taken. Forexample, during the bright period for each measurement sample, theanalog storage capacitor is pre-charged to 0.90V and this voltage/chargeis dissipated by the resistance of the nanopore until the nextpre-charge of the capacitor for the next measurement sample. In thisexample, during the dark period for each measurement sample, the analogstorage capacitor is first pre-charged/dissipated (reset) to 0.90V andthis voltage/charge is increased at a rate associated with theresistance of the nanopore until the next pre-charge/reset of thecapacitor for the next measurement sample. Graph 2410 shows thecorresponding voltage of the pre-charge/dissipation signal.

FIG. 25 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system fordetecting a state of a nanopore and adaptively processing nanopore statedata to optimize data to be outputted. As shown in FIG. 25, thecomponents shown in FIG. 25 are included in a biochip. The biochip mayinclude any number of components shown in FIG. 25. For example, thebiochip includes a plurality of nanopore cells, measurement circuitry,and local event detectors connected to adaptive analyzer 2512. Thebiochip may be a DNA sequencing biochip. For example, data outputtedfrom the biochip from buffer 2514 may be further processed to detect asequence of nucleotides included in a DNA. Any of the components shownin FIG. 25 may be implemented using any number of one or more of thefollowing: a circuit, a circuit component, an electrical component, acircuit module, a processor, a comparator, a computing module, a memory,a storage, a microarray, and a biochip component.

In some embodiments, the system shown in FIG. 25 is utilized to reduceand manage data to be outputted from a biochip of nanopore cells. Forexample, the amount of data that can be outputted by a DNA sequencingbiochip may be limited by the maximum output data rate of the biochip.With a large number of cells on the biochip, the amount of data that canbe potentially outputted by the biochip may exceed the maximum outputdata rate of the biochip. In some embodiments, the type and amount ofdata to be outputted is managed in a dynamic manner that dynamicallyreduces the amount of data to be outputted when required. For example,given processing cost of compressing and decompressing data, theinformation to be outputted may be only compressed if needed because theamount of current data to be outputted by the biochip exceeds athreshold. In another example, when an event is detected on a cell ofthe biochip, related information to be outputted may be discarded andnot outputted if the information can be outputted later without loss ofinformation. In another example, when an event is detected on a cell ofthe biochip, related information to be outputted may be discarded andnot outputted, even if the information cannot be outputted later withoutloss of information.

Nanopore cell 2502 is connected to measurement circuitry 2504. Nanoporecell 2502 may be nanopore cell 100 of FIG. 1, cell 200 of FIG. 2, and/orinclude any nanopore described in the specification. In someembodiments, nanopore cell 2502 may be electronically modeled as 1602 ofFIG. 16, 1702 of FIG. 17, 1802 of FIGS. 18A and 18B and/or 2202 of FIG.22.

Measurement circuitry 2504 detects electrical measurements of nanoporecell 2502. The electrical measurements may be utilized to detect thestate of the nanopore of nanopore cell 2502. For example, a change involtage measured by measurement circuitry 2504 indicates whether andwhich tag has been threaded in the nanopore. Examples of measurementcircuitry 2504 include 1600 of FIG. 16, 1700 of FIG. 17, 1800 of FIG.18A, 1801 of FIG. 18B, or 2200 of FIG. 22.

Local event detector 2506 receives detected electrical measurements frommeasurement circuitry 2504. In some embodiments, local event detector2506 detects whether electrical measurements from measurement circuitry2504 indicate a nanopore state change. For example, electricalmeasurement values are utilized to determine the type of tag inserted ina nanopore and only may be of importance when a tag enters the nanopore.If it is known that the state of the nanopore has not changed, theactual measurement value may not be of importance.

In some embodiments, rather than outputting from a biochip electricalmeasurement values for every periodic electrical measurement sample,measurement values are only outputted when required (e.g., when a statechange of the nanopore to a threaded state has been detected). In theevent it is detected that a state change is not indicted by a particularmeasurement sample, an indication that the state has not changed may bereported rather than reporting the actual measurement sample value. Insome embodiments, by determining a difference in the electricalmeasurement values from a previous measurement sample (e.g., storedmeasurement sample value corresponding to an open-channel state ofnanopore) to a new measurement sample, the magnitude of the differencemay indicate whether a state change has occurred (e.g., difference isgreater than threshold, within a certain range, etc.) and which tag hasbeen inserted in the nanopore. In some embodiments, a baseline expectedelectrical measurement of an open-channel nanopore is determined/knownand utilized to compare with a newly received electrical measurementsample to determine whether the new electrical measurement sampleindicates that a tag has been inserted or removed from the nanopore.

In some embodiments, state memory 2508 stores one or more previouslyreceived electrical measurement samples from measurement circuitry 2504.For example, a previously received electrical measurement sample valueretrieved from state memory 2508 is utilized by local event detector2506 in determining whether a newly received electrical measurementsample value indicates a change in state. In some embodiments, statememory 2508 stores one or more reference measurement valuescorresponding to one or more nanopore states (e.g., measurement valuescorresponding to an open-channel state of a nanopore).

In some embodiments, state memory 2508 stores an identifier of whetheran insertion of a tag in a nanopore has been reported by local eventdetector 2506 for a current bright period of a reference AC voltagesource signal period. For example, once an electrical measurement samplevalue corresponding to an insertion of a tag in a nanopore has beendetected and reported once for the same event during the same brightperiod of a reference AC voltage source signal cycle, subsequentelectrical measurement samples obtained while the tag is still insertedin the nanopore may not need to be reported again because the statechange has been already reported along with the associated electricalmeasurement value that indicates the type of tag inserted in thenanopore. Thus, in the event the stored identifier indicates that thetag inserted state has been already reported by local event detector2506 for the current bright period of the current reference AC voltagesource signal cycle, a subsequently received electrical measurementvalue that also corresponds to the same tag inserted state does not needto be reported. This stored identifier may be reset for every new cycleof the reference AC voltage source signal.

Adaptive analyzer 2512 receives data to be outputted (e.g., from abiochip for further processing/detection) from local event detector2506. In some embodiments, adaptive analyzer 2512 receives data from aplurality of local event detectors. For example, each local eventdetector of each nanopore cell detects and reports a state change ofeach respective nanopore cell and adaptive analyzer 2512 gathers thereported data from all local event detectors of a biochip to analyze thedata to be outputted in an attempt to reduce the size of the data to beoutputted, if needed. In some embodiments, adaptive analyzer 2512 isperiodically provided data as electrical measurements of nanopore cellsare obtained periodically.

For example, a bit vector indicating whether a state change has beendetected for each nanopore of the biochip is generated for output (e.g.,each bit of the vector corresponds to a different nanopore cell andindicates whether a tag has been inserted in the respective nanopore)for each periodic measurement instance. Along with the bit vector, forany nanopore that has been detected to have changed into a tag insertedstate, a corresponding electrical measurement sample value (e.g., valuecorresponding to a certain type of tag) is selected for output. Adaptiveanalyzer 2512 places data to be outputted (e.g., from a biochip) inbuffer 2514.

Buffer 2514 stores data to be outputted from the biochip. Data may becontinually outputted from the biochip from buffer 2514 at a data outputrate. However, the amount of data generated to be outputted may varyover time (e.g., depending on when a tag is inserted in a nanopore) andmay, at times, exceed the data output rate. Buffer 2514 stores datawaiting to be outputted. Depending on the amount of data in buffer 2514,adaptive analyzer 2512 adaptively attempts to reduce the size of newdata to be placed in buffer 2514 for output. For example, if buffer 2514is relatively empty, adaptive analyzer 2512 does not compress databefore placing data in buffer 2514 to save computing resources requiredto compress data whereas if buffer 2514 is at a threshold fill level,adaptive analyzer 2512 compresses data before placing data to beoutputted in buffer 2514. In some embodiments, buffer 2514 adaptivelyselects a compression technique (e.g., compression algorithms) and/orcompression setting (e.g., compression table symbols) based oncharacteristics (e.g., entropy) of the data to be compressed.

In some embodiments, in the event adaptive analyzer 2512 is unable toreduce/compress (e.g., using lossless compression) the data to a desiredsize, adaptive analyzer 2512 selectively modifies data to be outputtedif no loss in functionality/information will ultimately result. Forexample, reporting of an insertion of a tag in a nanopore may be delayedwithout negative consequences (e.g., tag is inserted in nanopore formultiple measurement cycles) and data reporting insertion of the tag andits associated measurement data is dropped to allow it be reported for anext electrical measurement sample cycle. This may be achieved byresetting (by adaptive analyzer 2512) the indicator stored in statememory 2508 that indicates whether a tag inserted state measurementvalue has been reported for a current bright period of a currentreference AC voltage source signal cycle—allowing the next measurementsample value of the nanopore to be reported during the same brightperiod because a previous measurement sample value indicating the taginserted state was previously reported and dropped by adaptive analyzer2512. In some embodiments, adaptive analyzer 2512 drops a portion ofdata to be reported (e.g., randomly selected portion, using lossycompression, etc.) in order to meet a desired size/bandwidth of data tobe outputted.

In an alternative embodiment, one or more components shown in FIG. 25may be included in one or more other chips that is separate from thebiochip. For example, the biochip includes nanopore cell 2502 and aseparate companion chip in communication with the biochip includes oneor more of the other components shown in FIG. 25.

FIG. 26 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process forreporting nanopore state data. The process of FIG. 26 may be implementedon local event detector 2506 of FIG. 25. For example, the process ofFIG. 26 is implemented on each of a plurality of local event detectorsof nanopore cells of a biochip.

At 2602, electrical measurement sample data of a nanopore is received.For example, a voltage measurement value corresponding to a resistanceof the nanopore is received. In some embodiments, the electricalmeasurement sample data includes an electrical measurement sample value(e.g., numerical value) received from measurement circuitry 2504 of FIG.25. The received electrical measurement data may correspond to onemeasurement sample of periodic measurement samples received. In someembodiments, the electrical measurement sample data is a value of anamount of charge/voltage stored in an analog storage capacitor (e.g.,analog storage capacitor of FIG. 22). In some embodiments, theelectrical measurement sample data is a difference value provided in2308 or 2318 of FIG. 23. Examples of the electrical measurement sampleinclude one or more of the following: a voltage value, a current value,a resistance value, an amount of charge value, a capacitance value or atime value.

At 2604, it is determined whether the received electrical measurementdata corresponds to a change in state of the nanopore (e.g., change instate to a threaded state, a change from a previously detected state,etc.). For example, the received electrical measurement sample data isanalyzed to determine whether the received electrical measurement datacorresponds to a change in state of the nanopore. In some embodiments,determining whether the received electrical measurement data correspondsto the change in nanopore state includes comparing the receivedelectrical measurement data to a previously received electricalmeasurement data. For example, a difference between a previouslyreceived electrical measurement value and an electrical measurementvalue received in 2604 is calculated and utilized to determine whetherthe difference value indicates a nanopore state change (e.g., differenceis within a predefined range, greater than a minimum threshold (e.g.,not due to minor variation/noise), less than a maximum threshold (e.g.,not due to change between bright period and dark period), etc.). In someembodiments, the received electrical measurement data is the differencebetween a previous electrical measurement data sample and a subsequentlycaptured electrical measurement data sample. In some embodiments,determining whether the received electrical measurement data correspondsto the change in nanopore state includes comparing the receivedelectrical measurement data to a reference electrical measurement data.For example, a reference electrical measurement data (e.g., predefinedor a previously received measurement data sample) that corresponds to anopen-channel nanopore state is compared with the received electricalmeasurement data to determine whether the electrical measurement datacorresponds to a change in nanopore state to a tag threaded state.

In some embodiments, determining whether the received electricalmeasurement data corresponds to the change in nanopore state includesdetermining whether the received electrical measurement data correspondsto a threaded state. For example, the threaded state during a brightperiod of a reference AC voltage source signal cycle is of interest andis desired to be detected to sequence a DNA. In some embodiments, only ananopore state change during a bright period of a reference AC voltagesource signal cycle is configured to be detected. For example, during adark period, a state change identifier and/or an electrical measurementsample value is not outputted by a local event detector. In someembodiments, in the event the received electrical measurement datacorresponds to a dark period of the current cycle of the reference ACvoltage source signal, nanopore state change detection is not performed.For example, during the dark period it is automatically determined thata nanopore state change has not been detected.

In some embodiments, determining whether the received electricalmeasurement data corresponds to a change in state of the nanoporeincludes determining whether the new nanopore state has been maintained.For example, once a tag is inserted in the nanopore during a brightperiod of an AC voltage source signal cycle, the tag is expected to stayinside the nanopore until the dark period of the AC voltage sourcesignal cycle under certain sampling conditions (e.g., when theelectrical modulation of bright/dark AC voltage source signal is fastcompared to the speed of the biological event). In this example, in theevent the state of the nanopore changes from an open-channel state to athreaded state then back to the open-channel state during a singlebright period prior to the end of the bright period, a statistically notrepresentative event has likely occurred (e.g., detection of thethreaded state may be due to signal noise or a tag was not properlythreaded). Thus when a change in nanopore state from a threaded state toan open-channel state is detected prior to the end of the current brightperiod, the threaded state change may or may not be reported based onthe sampling condition. For example, the earlier detected nanopore statechange to the threaded state for the current bright period may bedropped/prevented from being further processed and/or outputted from thebiochip under certain sampling conditions.

If at 2604 it is determined that the received electrical measurementdata does not correspond to a change in nanopore state, the processproceeds to 2608. If at 2604 it is determined that the receivedelectrical measurement data corresponds to a change in nanopore state,at 2606, it is determined whether an electrical measurement sample valueof the received electrical measurement sample data that corresponds to adetected threaded state of the nanopore has been previously reported fora current bright period of a current AC voltage source signal cycle. Forexample, the electrical measurement sample value that corresponds to thesame threaded state is to be only reported once rather than every time ameasurement sample of the tag threaded nanopore is obtained to avoidduplicate information from being reported (e.g., measurement value is tobe reported only once per single tag threaded event). In someembodiments, the stored report status identifier (e.g., stored in statememory 2508 of FIG. 25) tracks whether an electrical measurement valuethat corresponds to a threaded state has been already reported (e.g.,reported to adaptive analyzer 2512) for a current bright period of acurrent cycle of a reference AC voltage source signal of a nanoporecell. In some embodiments, at 2608, the stored report status identifieris obtained to determine whether the report status identifier indicatesthat an electrical measurement sample value that corresponds to adetected threaded state of the nanopore has been already reported. Ifthe report status identifier indicates that a previous electricalmeasurement sample value has been already reported, a subsequentelectrical measurement sample value corresponding to the same threadednanopore state may not need to be reported. This stored report statusidentifier may be reset for every new cycle of the reference AC voltagesource signal. In some embodiments, the stored report status identifieris reset to allow a second reporting of an electrical measurement valuefor the same threaded nanopore state in the event a previous reportedelectrical measurement value was discarded from being outputted to delayreporting the electrical measurement value of the threaded nanoporestate.

At 2608, an indication of whether the received electrical measurementdata corresponds to a change in state of the nanopore is reported. Forexample, for the received measurement sample data, a binary bit thatindicates whether the received measurement data indicates a threadednanopore state during a bright period of a cycle of a reference ACvoltage source signal is reported (e.g., provided to adaptive analyzer2512). In this example, a value of “1” is reported if the receivedelectrical measurement data corresponds to a nanopore threaded state anda value of “0” is reported otherwise. In some embodiments, no data isreported if the received electrical measurement data does not correspondto a change in nanopore state. In some embodiments, no data is reportedduring a dark period of a cycle of a reference AC voltage source signal.In some embodiments, the indication indicates whether the receivedelectrical measurement data corresponds to a change in state from athreaded state to an open-channel state. In some embodiments, therecipient of the indication combines together each binary bit indicationfrom each nanopore cell of a biochip to generate a bit array (e.g.,bitmap, bitset, bit string, bit vector, etc.) representation of thenanopore states of the cells. In some embodiments, the indicationindicates whether a received electrical measurement sample value will bereported (e.g., indication corresponds to determination of 2606). Forexample, a received electrical measurement sample value is only reportedwhen it is detected that the received electrical measurement samplevalue indicates a threaded nanopore state during a bright period and aprevious measurement value for this threaded nanopore state has not beenalready reported (e.g., as indicated by the stored report statusindicator).

If at 2606 it is determined that a previous electrical measurementsample value has been previously reported, at 2610, the electricalmeasurement sample value of the received electrical measurement data isnot reported (e.g., not provided to adaptive analyzer 2512). If at 2606it is determined that a previous electrical measurement sample value hasnot been previously reported, at 2612, the electrical measurement samplevalue of the received electrical measurement is reported (e.g., providedto adaptive analyzer 2512).

The process of FIG. 26 is repeated for each received measurement sample.In some embodiments, the process of FIG. 26 is only performed while abilayer and a nanopore are present in a cell of the biochip.

FIG. 27 is a diagram illustrating an example of periodic electricalmeasurement samples received during a cycle of a reference AC voltagesource signal. Graph 2700 shows a graphical representation of a squarewave AC voltage source signal 2702 (e.g., signal of voltage source 2240of FIG. 22). The shown cycle of signal 2702 includes bright period 2704(e.g., when polarity encourages a tag to be threaded in a nanopore) anddark period 2706 (e.g., when polarity encourages a tag to exit thenanopore). Electrical measurement samples 2711-2722 each correspond toan electrical measurement sample that is sequentially received as eachelectrical measurement sample is detected at a periodic interval (e.g.,received in 2602). In some embodiments, the electrical measurementsamples correspond to nanopore measurement voltage output of 1600 ofFIG. 16, 1700 of FIG. 17, 1800 of FIG. 18A, 1801 of FIG. 18B, or 2200 ofFIG. 22.

Measurement samples 2711-2713 correspond to an open-channel nanoporestate. When a tag becomes threaded in the nanopore, the measurementvalue changes and is shown as an elevated voltage in measurement samples2714-2716. The detection of measurement samples 2714-2716 as thethreaded state of the nanopore may be of interest when attempting todetect the type of tag threaded in the nanopore. Because the measurementsample values while the tag is threaded are similar (e.g., values ofmeasurement samples 2714-2716 are similar), only reporting of one ofthese values may be necessary to detect the type of the tag. Forexample, if the value of measurement sample 2714 is reported, values ofsamples 2715 and 2716 do not need to be reported. However, ifmeasurement sample 2714 is determined to be not outputted to reduce theamount of data to be outputted at a particular point in time, the valuesof samples 2715 or 2716 may be reported later without loss in theability to detect the tag threaded state and the type of tag threaded inthe nanopore during the current bright period. Because a tag is repelledfrom the nanopore during the dark period (e.g., while samples 2717-2722are measured), measurement samples of the dark period are often not ofinterest and may not need to be reported.

In the example shown, traditionally by reporting every raw electricalmeasurement sample value (e.g., 8-bit value representing measurementvalue reported for each sample), a large amount of output data bandwidth(e.g., 50 GB/s) would be required for a biochip (example output 2730).However, the amount of data to be outputted may be drastically reducedby only reporting the electrical measurement value when meaningful andnecessary. Rather than reporting the raw electrical measurement samplevalue for each sample, a binary indication is provided for eachmeasurement sample (example output 2732). The binary indicationindicates whether the measurement sample corresponds to a nanopore statechange (e.g., indicates whether open-channel state or threaded stateduring a bright period). During the dark period, the binary indicationmay not need to be provided. In addition to example output 2732, whennecessary, the actual measurement sample value is reported (exampleoutput 2734). For example, the first time the nanopore state change to athreaded state is detected, the corresponding measurement sample valueis reported to allow identification of the tag that corresponds to themeasurement sample value. As compared to the traditional raw reporting(example output 2730), the reporting of binary indications (exampleoutput 2732) and selective measurement value reporting (example output2734) significantly reduces the output data bandwidth requirement (e.g.,reduction from 50 GB/s to 7.3 GB/s (i.e., combination of 3.1 GB/s+4.2GB/s)).

FIG. 28 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process foradaptively analyzing data to be outputted. The process of FIG. 28 may beimplemented on adaptive analyzer 2512 of FIG. 25. In some embodiments,the process of FIG. 28 is repeated for each set of data received to beoutputted.

At 2802, data to be outputted is received. The received data may includedata indicating whether a nanopore state changed is received for eachnanopore cell of a group of nanopore cells. For example, there exists aplurality of nanopore cells on a biochip and for each nanopore cell andfor each instance when electrical measurement samples of the nanoporecells are taken, a one bit identifier indicating the nanopore state ofthe nanopore cell is received. In some embodiments, rather thanutilizing the one bit identifier, a multiple bit identifier indicatingthe nanopore state of the nanopore cell is received. In someembodiments, at a periodic interval, electrical measurement samples ofall nanopores are all obtained together as a group and the plurality ofone bit identifiers corresponding to each group of electricalmeasurements are concatenated together to form a bit array (e.g.,bitmap, bitset, bit string, bit vector, etc.) indicating the states ofthe nanopore cells. Each element position of the bit array maycorrespond to the same nanopore cell for each subsequent bitmap that isgenerated for the corresponding subsequent sets of measurement samples.In some embodiments, the received data includes the data reported at2608 and/or 2612 of FIG. 26. For example, data reported using theprocess of FIG. 26 is provided by local event detector 2506 of FIG. 25for each nanopore cell of a biochip.

In some embodiments, the received data includes an electricalmeasurement sample value corresponding to a detected change in the stateof a nanopore. For example, in the event a threaded state has beendetected for a nanopore and its corresponding electrical measurementvalue has not been already reported (e.g., as indicated by a statereport indicator stored in state memory 2508 of FIG. 25), the receiveddata includes the corresponding electrical measurement sample value thatcan be utilized to determine the type of tag inserted in the nanopore.In some embodiments, the one bit identifier corresponding to a nanoporeindicates whether a corresponding electrical measurement sample value ofthe nanopore will be included in the received data. In some embodiments,the received data includes the measurement sample value reported in 2612of FIG. 26.

At 2804, it is determined whether the size of the received data shouldbe reduced. For example, the output data rate of a biochip is limitedand it is determined whether the amount of additional data to beoutputted by the biochip should be reduced because a data budget hasbeen exceeded. One example of reducing the size of the received dataincludes compressing the data. However, by not compressing the data whennot needed, the amount of computing resources required to compress anddecompress data may be saved. In some embodiments, determining whetherthe size of the received data should be reduced includes determining theamount of data remaining in a buffer to be outputted. For example,buffer 2514 of FIG. 25 stores data awaiting to be outputted by a biochipand as output bandwidth is available, data from the buffer is outputtedfrom the biochip and removed from the buffer. In some embodiments,determining whether the size of the received data should be reducedincludes determining whether the amount of data remaining in the outputbuffer has reached a threshold level/amount. In the event the thresholdlevel has been reached, it is determined that the size of the receiveddata to be outputted should be reduced and otherwise it is determinedthat the size of the received data does not need to be reduced. In someembodiments, determining whether the size of the received data should bereduced includes determining whether adding the received data to theoutput buffer would result in increasing the amount of data in thebuffer beyond a threshold level/amount. In some embodiments, determiningwhether the size of the received data should be reduced includesdetermining whether the size of the received data is beyond a thresholdand in the event the size is beyond the threshold, the received data isto be reduced. In some embodiments, determining whether the size of thereceived data should be reduced includes determining whether thereceived data should be compressed.

If at 2804 it is determined that the received data is to be reduced, at2806, the received data is analyzed to determine a compression techniquefor the received data. For example, a compression technique is selectedamong a plurality of techniques based on a profile and/or contents ofthe received data. In some embodiments, the compression technique isnon-lossy. For example, at least a portion of the received data is notrequired to be modified or lost when compressing the received data. Insome embodiments, step 2804 is not performed. For example, step 2806 isalways performed when the process of FIG. 28 is performed.

At 2808, it is determined whether a compressed data size of the receiveddata would exceed a data budget. For example, a size of the receiveddata that would result after applying the selected compression techniqueis determined. Determining whether the data budget would be exceeded mayinclude determining whether adding compressed received data to an outputbuffer would result in increasing the amount of data in the bufferbeyond a threshold level/amount. For example, in the event adding thecompressed data would result in overfilling the buffer, it is determinedthat the data budget would be exceeded. In some embodiments, determiningwhether the data budget would be exceeded includes determining whetherthe size of the compressed received data is larger than a threshold. Forexample, the size of the compressed received data is compared to amaximum data size or amount of capacity remaining in an output buffer.

If at 2808, it is determined that the compressed data size would exceedthe data budget, at 2810, the received data is modified. In someembodiments, modifying the received data includes filtering the receiveddata. In some embodiments, modifying the received data includesmodifying contents of the compressed data to delay reporting of anelectrical measurement sample value corresponding to a threaded state ofa nanopore. For example, in the event an electrical measurement samplevalue of a threaded nanopore state is able to be reported for any of aplurality of electrical measurement samples obtained during the threadedstate of a nanopore, an electrical measurement sample value of one ofthe electrical measurement samples may be dropped and not reportedbecause an electrical measurement sample value of a subsequentelectrical measurement sample may be reported instead. In someembodiments, modifying the received data includes removing an electricalmeasurement sample value from the received data and indicating asubsequent electrical measurement sample value corresponding to athreaded nanopore state should be reported for output. For example, astatus report identifier (e.g., status report identifier stored in statememory 2508) that identifies whether an electrical measurement samplevalue of a threaded state of a nanopore has been already reported for acurrent bright period of a current reference AC voltage source signalcycle is reset to enable reporting of a subsequent measurement samplevalue indicating the threaded state.

In some embodiments, modifying the received data includes selecting alossy compression technique to be utilized. For example, in the eventthe data budget has been/will be exceeded yet a measurement sample valueis unable to be removed/delayed from being outputted, the received datais to be compressed using a lossy compression technique to furtherreduce its size. In some embodiments, a portion of the received data isdropped (e.g., to introduce random noise, to reduce data precision,etc.). For example, in the event other modification technique(s) areunable to reduce the data to not exceed the data budget, a randomportion of the received data is selected to be not outputted. In someembodiments, the determination in 2808 is optional. For example, step2810 is always performed when the process of FIG. 28 is performed.

At 2812, the received data, whether modified (e.g., at 2810) or notmodified (e.g., determined to not exceed data budget in 2808), iscompressed. For example, the data is compressed using the selectedcompression technique (e.g., non-lossy or lossy).

At 2814, the resulting received data, whether compressed (e.g., at 2812)or not compressed (e.g., determined not to be reduced in 2804), isplaced in an output buffer to be outputted. For example, data isinserted in buffer 2514 of FIG. 25 for output from a biochip. In analternative embodiment, the resulting received data, whetheruncompressed or compressed, is outputted from a biochip without beingplaced in an output buffer.

FIG. 29 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process fordetermining a compression technique. The process of FIG. 29 may beimplemented on adaptive analyzer 2512 of FIG. 25. In some embodiments,the process of FIG. 29 is included in 2806 of FIG. 28.

At 2902, entropy of a received data is determined. For example, datareceived in 2802 of FIG. 28 is analyzed to determine a best datacompression technique among eligible techniques for the received data.In some embodiments, determining the entropy includes determining aShannon entropy of the received data to be compressed. Determining theentropy may include determining the randomness of the data included inthe received data. The entropy may indicate the compressibility of thereceived data and/or the type of compression technique best suited tocompress the received data (e.g., technique that will most reduce thesize of the data). The entropy may indicate the expected compressibilityof the received data using a lossless compression technique. In someembodiments, the determining the entropy includes determining astatistical measure of lengths of same consecutive binary values (e.g.,average length of consecutive zeros) in the received data.

At 2904, a compression technique is selected based at least in part onthe entropy. The best type of compression technique to be utilized tocompress the received data may depend on a profile and/or content of thedata. For example, data with low entropy may be best compressed using arun-length encoding compression technique while data with high entropymay be best compressed using Lempel-Ziv-based compression techniques(e.g., using symbol dictionary). In some embodiments, the compressiontechnique is selected among a plurality of possible compressiontechniques to most minimize the size of the compressed data. Examples ofthe compression technique may include any compression algorithms or dataencoding/coding techniques.

At 2906, a parameter of the selected compression technique is determinedbased on the received data, if applicable. For example, the parameter ofthe compression technique is determined based on the determined entropyand/or contents of the received data. In some embodiments, one or moresymbols to be included in a compression dictionary are selected based onanalysis of content included the received data.

At 2908, the selected compression technique and its determined parameter(if applicable) are indicated. For example, the selected compressiontechnique is indicated for use to compress the received data.

FIG. 30 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process formodifying/filtering data to be outputted. The process of FIG. 30 may beimplemented on adaptive analyzer 2512 of FIG. 25. In some embodiments,the process of FIG. 30 is included in 2810 of FIG. 28. For example, theprocess of FIG. 30 is executed to modify data to be outputted to reduceits size in the event a data budget would be exceeded.

At 3002, it is determined whether a received data includes an electricalmeasurement sample value that corresponds to a threaded state of ananopore.

If at 3002 it is determined that the received data includes anelectrical measurement sample value that corresponds to the threadedstate of the nanopore, at 3004 it is determined whether the electricalmeasurement sample value corresponds to the last measurement sample of abright period of a reference AC voltage source signal cycle. Forexample, it is determined whether reporting of a measurement samplevalue is able to be delayed until a next measurement sample of thenanopore because a threaded state of the nanopore will bedetected/measured again.

If at 3004 it is determined that the electrical measurement sample valuedoes not correspond to the last measurement sample, at 3006, thereceived data is filtered/modified to not report the electricalmeasurement sample value. For example, an indicator (e.g., one bitindicator) of the state of the nanopore included in the received data ismodified to not indicate a state change and/or a threaded state, and/orthe electrical measurement value is removed from the received data. Insome embodiments, the modified received data is the version of data tobe outputted from a biochip rather than outputting the original receiveddata.

At 3008, a status report indicator (e.g., indicating whether ameasurement sample value of the threaded state has been already reportedfor the current bright period of the current AC voltage source cycle) ischanged to indicate that the measurement sample value has not beenreported. This may allow a next measurement sample of the nanopore totrigger reporting of its electrical measurement value. In someembodiments, a status report indicator stored in state memory 2508 ofFIG. 25 is modified.

If at 3002 it is determined that the received data does not include anelectrical measurement sample value that corresponds to the threadedstate of the nanopore or if at 3004 it is determined that the electricalmeasurement sample value does correspond to the last measurement sample,at 3010, it is determined to not filter/modify the received data. Forexample, at 2810 of FIG. 28, the received data is not modified if it isunable to be modified to delay reporting of an electrical measurementsample value corresponding to a threaded nanopore state.

FIG. 31 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process forhandling a threaded nanopore multi-state detection. The process of FIG.31 may be implemented on adaptive analyzer 2512 of FIG. 25. In someembodiments, the process of FIG. 31 is performed after 2802 of FIG. 28.For example, the received data is processed to determine whether anearlier detected threaded state of a nanopore can be statisticallydeemed not representative and not reported. For example, under certainsampling conditions multiple changes of a threaded state within onebright period can be statistically deemed not representative. This mayfurther reduce the amount of data to be outputted by a biochip. Forexample, rather than outputting data indicating a threaded state andthen later outputting data that indicates cancelation of the threadedstate detection, the nanopore state changes back and forth are notreported.

At 3102 is it detected that a received data indicates that a state of ananopore has changed from a threaded state to an open-channel stateprior to an end of a bright period. Once a tag is inserted in thenanopore during a bright period of the AC voltage cycle, the tag isexpected to stay inside the nanopore until the end of the bright periodand the beginning of the dark period of the AC voltage cycle undercertain sampling conditions (e.g., when the electrical modulationbright/dark AC signal is fast compared to the speed of the biologicalevents). In the event the reported state of the nanopore changes fromopen-channel to a threaded state and then back to the open-channel stateduring a single bright period prior to the end of the bright period of acycle of an AC voltage source signal for certain sampling conditions,the earlier detected state change to the threaded state is determined tobe statistically insignificant (e.g., earlier detection of the threadedstate may be due to noise).

At 3104, an earlier received data that indicated the threaded state ofthe nanopore is modified to no longer indicate the threaded state. Forexample, an indication included in the received data is modified and/ora corresponding measurement value included in the earlier received datais dropped/removed. This may reduce the amount of the data to beoutputted from the biochip. The earlier received data may be in theprocess of being analyzed using the process of FIG. 28, awaiting to beplaced in an output buffer (e.g., awaiting end of bright period in thecase of threaded state detection error) or included in the output buffer(e.g., in buffer 2514 of FIG. 25).

At 3106, data indicating a nanopore state change from the threaded stateto the open-channel state is not outputted, if applicable. For example,because the earlier received data indicating the threaded state has beenmodified to not report the threaded state, the data indicating thechange back to the open-channel state does not have to be outputted. Forexample, a state change indicator reporting the change from the threadedstate to the open-channel state is modified in the received data toindicate that a state change has not been detected (e.g., indicateopen-channel state has been maintained).

Although the foregoing embodiments have been described in some detailfor purposes of clarity of understanding, the invention is not limitedto the details provided. There are many alternative ways of implementingthe invention. The disclosed embodiments are illustrative and notrestrictive.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system, comprising: a circuit configured tomeasure a first voltage after a first time interval has elapsed, thefirst voltage corresponding to an electrical measurement of a nanopore,the circuit further configured to measure a second voltage after asecond time interval, the second voltage corresponding to a secondelectrical measurement of the same nanopore, wherein the first timeinterval is equal in magnitude to the second time interval, wherein thefirst time interval spans a voltage range from a first preset voltage tothe first voltage, wherein the second time interval spans a voltagerange from a second preset voltage to the second voltage, wherein thefirst time interval and the second time interval do not overlap; and acomponent configured to compare the first voltage to the second voltage;wherein based at least in part on the comparison of the first and secondvoltages, a nanopore state change indicator is configured to determinewhether a difference between the first voltage and the second voltageindicates a change in a state of the nanopore, and based at least inpart on the determination of the nanopore state change indicator, it isperiodically determined whether to provide as output a nanoporemeasurement value that can be used for a subsequent identification of atag or molecule or save data bandwidth by not outputting the nanoporemeasurement value.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the change in thestate of the nanopore indicates a nanopore event.
 3. The system of claim1, wherein detecting the first voltage includes detecting a voltage of acapacitor electrically coupled to the nanopore.
 4. The system of claim1, wherein the system is included in a biochip.
 5. The system of claim1, wherein the second voltage is a previous voltage measurementcorresponding to a previous electrical measurement of the nanopore. 6.The system of claim 1, wherein the second voltage corresponds anopen-channel state of the nanopore.
 7. The system of claim 1, whereinthe first voltage is one of a sequence of voltages detected at aperiodic interval.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the nanopore statechange indicator is a one bit indicator.
 9. The system of claim 1,wherein the comparing the first voltage includes determining whether thedifference is above a threshold value.
 10. The system of claim 1,wherein the comparing the first voltage includes determining whether thedifference is within a specified value range.
 11. The system of claim 1,wherein the nanopore measurement value includes a value of thedifference.
 12. The system of claim 1, wherein the change in the stateof the nanopore is a change in the state of the nanopore from anopen-channel state to a threaded state.
 13. The system of claim 1,wherein the change in the state of the nanopore is a change in the stateof the nanopore from a first threaded state to a second threaded stateor to an open-channel state.
 14. The system of claim 1, whereindetermining the nanopore state change indicator includes determiningwhether the first voltage corresponds to a tag threaded state of thenanopore.
 15. The system of claim 1, wherein the nanopore state changeindicator is concatenated with a plurality of other one bit indicatorscorresponding to a plurality of other nanopores.
 16. The system of claim1, wherein in the event it is determined that the first voltage does notindicate the change in the state of the nanopore, it is determined tonot output a value of the first voltage.
 17. The system of claim 1,wherein the first voltage has a magnitude that is smaller than amagnitude of the first preset voltage, wherein the second voltage has amagnitude that is smaller than a magnitude of the second preset voltage.18. The system of claim 1, wherein the circuit is configured to measurethe first voltage and second voltage at a sampling rate that is based atleast in part on a duration of time in which the nanopore is expected toremain in a state.
 19. A method, comprising: detecting a first voltagechange corresponding to an electrical measurement of a nanopore;comparing the first voltage change detected over a first interval oftime to a second voltage change corresponding to a second electricalmeasurement of the same nanopore detected over a second interval oftime, wherein the first interval of time is equal in magnitude to thesecond interval of time, wherein the first interval of time spans avoltage range from a first preset voltage to a first voltage, whereinthe second interval of time spans a voltage range from a second presetvoltage to a second voltage, wherein the first interval of time and thesecond interval of time do not overlap; determining, based at least inpart on the comparison of the first and second voltage changes detectedover different intervals of time, a change in state of the nanopore witha nanopore state change indicator; and based at least in part on thedetermination of the nanopore state change indicator, periodicallydetermining whether to provide as output a nanopore measurement valuethat can be used for a subsequent identification of a tag or molecule orsave data bandwidth by not outputting the nanopore measurement value.